WeDster  ranmy  Liorary  of  Veterinary  Medicine 
Cummings  School  of  Veterinary  Medicine  at 
Tufts  University 
200  Westboro  Road 
North  Grafton,  MA  01536 


I 


TUFTS   UNIVERSITY   LIBRARIES 


699  3   9090  013  414  061 

U.  S.  DEPARTMENT   OF   AGRICULTURE. 


FARMERS'   BULLETIN    No.  170. 


PRINCIPLES  OF  HORSE  FEEDING 


BY 


C.  F.  LANGWORTHY,  Ph.  D. 


i'BEPARED  UNDER  THE  SUPERVISION  OF  THE  OFFICE  OF  EXPERIMENT  STATIONS. 
J^.   C.   TRUE,    Director. 


WASHINGTON: 

GOVERNMENT     PRINTING     OFFICE. 

1903. 


i*V  < 


.^ 


LETrER  OE  TRANSMITTAL 


U.  S.  Department  of  Agriculture, 

Office  of  Experiment  Stations, 

Washmgton,  D.  C,  May  1,  1903. 
Sir:  I  have  the  honor  to  transmit  herewith  an  article  on  horse  feed- 
ing, prepared  by  C.  F.  Langworthy,  of  this  Office,  and  recommend 
that  it  be  published  as  a  Farmers'  Bulletin.  The  bulletin  discusses 
the  general  principles  of  feeding,  with  especial  reference  to  horses, 
and  summarizes  the  results  of  recent  experimental  work,  particularly 
that  of  American  experiment  stations,  the  material  in  its  present  form 
being  very  largely  an  abridgment  of  a  more  technical  publication  by 
the  same  author,  issued  as  Bulletin  No.  125  of  the  Office  of  Experi- 
ment Stations,  entitled  "A  Digest  of  Eecent  Experiments  on  Horse 
Feeding." 

Respectfully,  A.  C.  True, 

Director. 
Hon.  James  Wilson, 

Secretary  of  Agriculture. 

2 
170 


CONTENTS. 

rage. 

Introduction 5 

Principles  of  nutrition 6 

Composition  of  feeding  stuffs 9 

Comparative  value  of  feeding  stuffs 11 

Cereal  grains 11 

Leguminous  seeds 14 

Oil  cakes  and  other  commercial  by-products 14 

Forage  crops,  fresh  and  cured 16 

Roots  and  tubers 19 

Molasses  and  other  by-products  of  sugar  making 20 

Fruits,  fresh  and  dried 21 

Injurious  feeding  stuffs 21 

Method  of  feeding 23 

Cooked  and  raw  feed 23 

Dry  and  soaked  feed 23 

Ground  and  unground  feed  - 24 

Cut  and  uncut  coarse  fodder 24 

Fattening  horses  for  market 25 

Watering  horses 25 

Digestibility  of  feeding  stuffs _ 27 

Comparative  digestibility  by  horses  and  ruminants 28 

Rations  actually  fed  and  feeding  standards 30 

Method  of  calculating  rations 36 

Muscular  work  and  its  effect  on  food  requirements 37 

Measuring  muscular  work 37 

Muscular  work  in  its  relation  to  the  ration 38 

Proportion  of  energy  of  food  expended  for  internal  and  external  muscular 

work 40 

Energy  required  to  chew  and  digest  food 40 

' '  True  nutritive  value ' '  of  feeding  stuffs 41 

Fixing  rations  on  the  basis  of  internal  and  external  muscular  work  * 42 

Summary 42 

170 

3 


PRINCIPLES  OF  HORSE  FEEDING. 


INTRODUCTION. 

The  scientific  study  of  different  problems  connected  with  the  feeding 
of  farm  animals  has  been  followed  for  something  over  half  a  century. 
Some  of  the  very  early  work  was  with  horses,  but  more  generally  it 
was  carried  on  with  other  domestic  animals.  Within  the  last  few  years 
this  phase  of  the  problem  has  received  much  more  attention,  and  feed- 
ing tests,  digestion  experiments,  and  more  complicated  investigations 
have  accumulated  in  considerable  numbers.  The  bulk  of  this  work 
has  been  carried  on  in  France  and  German}^;  a  creditable  amount, 
however,  has  been  done  in  this  country,  notabl}"  by  the  agricultural 
experiment  stations,  and  the  results  of  these  experiments  and  obser- 
vations have  been  published  from  time  to  time,  and  are  very  useful. 
Mention  must  be  made  also  of  the  work  of  practical  feeders,  which  is 
of  great  value. 

In  the  present  bulletin  the  attempt  is  made  to  bring  together  some 
of  the  more  important  results  and  deductions  which  may  be  gathered 
from  the  American  and  foreign  experimental  work,  especially  that  of 
recent  years.  It  is  not  the  purpose  to  provide  practical  feeders  with 
directions  for  feeding  according  to  a  particular  formula;  indeed  this 
is  not  necessar}',  if  it  were  possible,  for  practical  feeders  to  a  great 
extent  understand  the  needs  of  their  horses  and  how  to  meet  them. 
The  object  is  rather  to  summarize  matter  which  seems  interesting  and 
valuable,  and  whicli  in  many  cases  may  give  the  reason  for  something 
of  which  the  wisdom  has  long  been  recognized  in  practice. 

The  problem  of  horse  feeding  is  one  which  each  feeder  solves  more 
or  less  for  himself,  the  opinion  regarding  what  is  and  what  is  not  sat- 
isfactory feed  varying  more  or  less  with  the  time  and  place.  Opinions 
may  differ  as  to  the  value  of  this  food  or  that,  but  it  is  evident  that 
the  actual  food  requirements  of  a  horse  performing  a  given  amount  of 
work  can  not  vary  as  a  result  of  a  change  of  opinion  on  the  feeder's 
part.  With  horses,  as  with  all  animals,  including  man,  the  real  prob- 
lem is  to  suppl}^  sufficient  nutritive  material  for  building  and  repairing 
the  body  and  furnishing  it  with  the  energy  necessary  for  performing 
work,  whether  it  be  that  which  goes  on  inside  the  body  (the  beating 
170  5 


of  the  heart,  respiratory  movements,  etc.),  or  the  work  which  is  per- 
formed outside  the  body  (hauling  a  load,  etc.).  The  body  temperature 
must  also  be  maintained  at  the  expense  of  the  fuel  ingredients,  but 
whether  material  is  burned  in  the  body  primarily  for  this  purpose,  or 
whether  the  necessary  heat  is  a  resultant  of  the  internal  muscular  work, 
is  not  known  with  certainty., 

The  problem  of  successfully  feeding  horses  differs  somewhat  from 
that  encountered  in  feeding  most  domestic  animals.  Cattle,  sheep, 
and  pigs  are  fed  to  induce  gains  in  weight,  i.  e. ,  to  fatten  them,  or  in 
the  case  of  milch  cows  to  produce  gains  in  the  form  of  a  body  secretion 
(milk)  rather  than  as  fat  in  the  body.  In  a  similar  way  sheep  are  fed 
for  the  production  of  wool,  and  poultry  for  the  production  of  eggs. 
Sometimes  cattle  are  also  fed  as  beasts  of  burden.  Horses  are  fed 
almost  universally  as  beasts  of  burden,  whether  the  work  consists  in 
carrying  a  rider  or  drawing  a  load. 

Mares  with  foal  require  food  for  the  development  of  their  young, 
and  after  birth  the  colt  needs  it  for  the  growth  and  development  of 
the  body  as  well  as  for  maintenance.  Such  demands  for  nutritive 
material  are  common  to  all  classes  of  animals.  Sometimes  horses  are 
fed  to  increase  their  weight;  that  is,  to  improve  their  condition.  For 
instance,  animals  are  often  fattened  by  horse  dealers  before  they  are 
sold.  However,  generally  speaking,  the  problem  in  horse  feeding  is 
to  supply  sufficient  nutritive  material  for  the  production  of  the  work 
required  and  at  the  same  time  to  maintain  the  body  weight.  The 
almost  universal  experience  of  practical  horse  feeders,  and  the  results 
of  many  carefully  planned  experiments,  agree  that  there  is  no  surer 
test  of  the  fitness  of  any  given  ration  than  that  it  enables  the  horse  fed 
to  maintain  a  constant  weight.  If  the  animal  loses  weight  it  is  evident 
that  the  ration  is  insufficient,  while  if  gains  in  weight  are  made  and 
the  animal  becomes  fat  it  is  evident  that  more  feed  is  given  than  is 
necessary.  Provided  the  horse  is  in  good  condition,  it  is  seldom  desir- 
able to  induce  any  considerable  gain  in  weight.  Reference  is  not 
made  to  the  small  daily  fluctuations  in  weight,  but  to  gains  or  losses 
which  extend  over  a  considerable  period.  The  most  satisfactory  ration 
must  necessarily  bo  made  up  of  materials  which  are  wholesome  and  are 
relished  by  the  horse.  It  should  also  be  reasonable  in  cost.  It  must 
be  abundant  enough  to  meet  all  body  requirements,  but  not  so  abun 
dant  that  the  horse  lays  on  an  undesirable  amount  of  flesh. 

PRINCIPLES  OF  NUTRITION. 

The  foundation  principles  of  nutrition  are  the  same  in  the  case  of  all 
animals,  including  man.  A  brief  discussion  of  the  properties  of  food 
and  the  general  laws  of  nutrition  follows. 

The  study  of  foods  and  feeding  stuffs  has  shown  tluit  although  they 
differ  so  much  in  texture  and  appearance  they  are  in  reality  made  up 

170 


of  a  small  number  of  chemical  constituents,  namely,  protein,  fat,  car- 
bohydrates, and  ash,  together  with  a  larger  or  smaller  amount  of 
water.  The  latter  can  be  often  seen,  as  in  the  juice  of  fresh  plants. 
In  dry  hay  no  water  or  juice  is  visible.  A  small  amount  is,  however, 
contained  in  minute  particles  in  the  plant  tissues. 

Protein  is  a  name  given  to  the  total  group  of  nitrogenous  materials 
present.  The  group  is  made  up  mainly  of  the  true  proteids  and  albu- 
mens such  as  the  gluten  of  wheat,  and  of  nitrogenous  materials  such 
as  amids,  which  are  believed  to  have  a  lower  feeding  value  than  the 
albumens. 

The  group  "fat"  includes  the  true  vegetable  fats  and  oils,  like  the 
oil  in  cotton  seed  or  corn,  as  well  as  vegetable  wax,  some  chlorophyl 
(the  green  coloring  matter  in  leaves,  etc.),  and  other  coloring  matters; 
in  l)rief,  all  the  materials  which  are  extracted  by  ether  in  the  usual 
laboratory  method  of  estimating  fat.  The  name  "ether  extract"  is 
often  and  quite  properly  applied  to  this  group. 

The  group  "carbohydrates"  includes  starches,  sugars,  crude  fiber, 
cellulose,  pentosans,  and  other  bodies  of  a  similar  chemical  structure. 
This  group  is  usually  subdivided,  according  to  the  analytical  methods 
followed  in  estimating  it,  into  "nitrogen-free  extract"  and  "crude 
fiber;"  the  former  subdivision  including  principally  sugar,  starches, 
and  most  of  the  pentosans,  and  the  latter  cellulose,  lignin,  and  other 
woody  substances  which  very  largel}^  make  up  the  rigid  structure  of 
plants. 

The  group  "mineral  matter"  includes  the  inorganic  bodies  present 
in  the  form  of  salts  in  the  juices  and  tissue  of  the  different  feeding 
stuffs,  the  principal  chemical  elements  found  being  sodium,  potassium, 
calcium,  chlorin,  fluorin,  phosphorus,  and  sulphur.  The  term  "ash" 
is  often  and  very  appropriately  used  for  this  group,  since  the  mineral 
matter  represents  the  incombustible  portion  which  remains  when  any 
given  feeding  stuff  is  burned. 

The  functions  of  food  are  (1)  to  supply  material  to  build  and  repair 
the  body,  and  (2)  to  yield  energy.  The  chemical  composition  of  a 
feeding  stuff  serves  as  a  basis  for  judging  of  its  value  for  building  and 
repairing  body  tissue.  Its  value  as  a  source  of  energy  must,  however, 
be  learned  in  another  way.  The  most  usual  way  of  measuring  energy 
is  in  terms  of  heat,  the  calorie  being  taken  as  a  unit.  This  is  the 
amount  of  heat  which  would  raise  the  temperature  of  1  kilogram  of 
water  1"  C. ,  or  1  pound  of  water  4^  F.  Instead  of  this  the  unit  of 
mechanical  energj^,  the  foot-ton  (the  force  which  would  lift  1  ton  1 
foot),  may  be  used,  but  it  is  not  as  convenient.  One  calorie  corresponds 
very  nearly  to  1.54  foot- tons. 

The  fuel  value  of  any  food  is  equal  to  its  heat  of  combustion  less 
the  energy  of  the  excretory  products  derived  from  it,  and  ma}^  be 
learned  by  taking  into  account  the  chemical  composition  of  the  food 

170 


8 

or  feeding  stuff,  the  proportions  of  the  nutrients  actually  digested  and 
oxidized  in  the  bod}^,  and  the  proportion  of  the  whole  latent  energy  of 
each  which  becomes  active  and  useful  to  the  body  for  warmth  and 
work.  However,  the  fuel  value  may  be  and  often  is  calculated  from 
the  composition  of  the  food  material  supplied,  on  the  assumption  that 
1  gram  of  protein  furnishes  4.1  calories,  1  gram  fat  9.3  calories,  and  1 
gram  carbohydrates  4.1  calories,  or  1  pound  protein  1,860  calories,  1 
pound  fat  4,220  calories,  and  1  pound  carbohydrates  1,860  calories. 

The  relation  between  the  quantities  of  nitrogenous  and  nitrogen-free 
nutrients  in  the  ration  is  called  the  nutritive  or  nutrient  ratio.  In  cal- 
culating this  ratio  1  pound  of  fat  is  taken  as  equivalent  to  2.25  pounds 
of  carboh3^drates — this  being  approximately  the  ratio  of  their  fuel 
values — so  that  the  nutritive  ratio  is  actually  that  of  the  protein  to  the 
carbohydrates  plus  2.25  times  the  fat. 

All  the  organs  and  tissues  of  the  body  contain  nitrogen.  Protein  is 
the  only  nutrient  which  supplies  this  element,  and  is  therefore  essen- 
tial for  building  and  repairing  body  tissues.  The  other  elements 
required,  namely,  carbon,  oxygen,  and  hydrogen,  may  be  supplied 
theoretically  by  protein,  fat,  or  carbohydrates;  but  a  well-balanced 
diet  or  ration  contains  all  the  nutrients  in  proper  proportion.  Protein, 
fat,  and  carbohydrates  may  be  burned  with  the  formation  of  carbon 
dioxid  and  water,  and  therefore  all  may  serve  as  sources  of  energ3^ 

The  mineral  matter  in  food  is  required  for  a  number  of  different 
purposes,  a  considerable  amount  being  needed  for  the  formation  of 
the  skeleton.  Some  is  also  present  in  the  organs  and  tissues.  It  can 
not,  however,  be  regarded  as  a  source  of  energy,  according  to  com- 
monly accepted  theories,  since  it  can  not  be  burned  with  the  formation 
of  carbon  dioxid  and  water.  The  water  present  in  food  is  not  a 
nutrient  in  the  sense  that  it  serves  for  building  tissue  or  yielding 
energy,  but  it  is  essential,  serving  to  carry  the  food  in  the  digestive 
processes,  to  dilute  the  blood,  and  for  many  other  physiological  pur- 
poses. The  oxygen  of  the  air  is  required  by  all  living  animals  for  the 
combustion,  or  oxidation,  of  the  fuel  constituents  of  food. 

When  foods  are  burned  in  the  body,  i.  e.,  oxidized,  they  give  up  the 
latent  energy  present  in  them.  In  determining  the  fuel  value  of  pro- 
tein, due  allowance  is  made  for  the  fact  that  combustion  is  not  as  com- 
plete in  the  body  as  in  a  furnace. 

The  body  is  often  likened  to  a  machine,  but  it  differs  from  one  in  a 
number  of  important  ways;  for  instance,  it  is  itself  built  up  of  the 
same  materials  which  it  utilizes  as  fuel,  and  further,  if  an  excess  of 
fuel,  i.  e.,  food,  is  supplied,  it  may  be  stored  as  a  reserve  material  for 
future  use,  generally  in  the  form  of  fat  or  glycogen,  a  sugar-like  body. 

The  amount  of  work  performed  by  a  horse,  for  convenience  in  meas- 
urement, may  bo  resolved  into  several  factors,  as  follows:  (1)  The 
energy  expended  in  chewing,  swallowing,  and  digesting  food,  keeping 

170 


9 

up  the  beating  of  the  heart,  circulation  of  the  blood,  respiratory  move- 
ments, and  other  vital  processes;  (2)  the  energy  which  is  expended  in 
moving  the  body,  walking',  trotting,  etc.,  which  is  usually  spoken  of 
as  energy  required  for  forward  progression;  and  (3)  the  energy  which 
is  expended  in  carrying  a  rider,  as  in  the  case  of  a  saddle  horse,  or 
drawing  a  load,  as  in  the  case  of  a  draft  animal  or  carriage  horse. 

The  character  of  the  road,  whether  level  or  up  or  down  hill,  is  an 
important  factor  in  determining  the  amount  of  work.  It  is  evident 
that  more  energy  is  required  to  lift  the  body  at  each  step  and  move  it 
forward  when  climbing  an  incline  than  when  walking  on  a  level.  In 
the  same  way,  when  a  load  is  drawn  uphill  it  must  be  raised  as  well  as 
drawn  forward. 

Work  may  be  measured  as  foot-pounds  or  foot-tons,  or  by  any  other 
convenient  unit.  A  foot-j)ound  is  the  amount  of  energy  expended  in 
raising  1  pound  1  foot;  a  foot-ton,  that  expended  in  raising  1  ton  1 
foot;  a  commonly  used  unit  of  force  is  the  "ton  power,"  equivalent 
to  550  foot-pounds  per  second.  Work  may  also  be  measured  in  terms 
of  heat,  i,  e.,  calories.  This  is  especially  convenient  in  discussing 
problems  of  nutrition,  since  the  heat  of  combustion  is  one  of  the  factors 
usually  determined  or  calculated  when  foods  are  analyzed;  and  further- 
more, the  feeding  standards  which  have  been  proposed  for  horses  and 
other  farm  animals  show  the  requirements  per  day  in  terms  of  nutri- 
ents and  energy.  One  calorie  corresponds,  as  stated  above,  very 
nearly  to  1.54  foot-tons. 

COMPOSITION  OF  FEEDING  STUFFS. 

The  feeding  stuffs  of  most  importance  for  horses  are  cereal  grains, 
such  as  oats  and  corn,  either  ground  or  unground;  leguminous  seeds, 
as  beans  and  peas;  cakes,  and  other  commercial  by-products,  as  oil- 
cake, gluten  feed,  and  so  on;  fodder  crops,  green  or  cured;  and  differ- 
ent roots,  tubers,  and  green  vegetables.  In  quite  recent  times  cane 
molasses,  beet  molasses,  and  other  beet-sugar  by-products  have 
assumed  more  or  less  importance  in  this  connection.  The  composition 
of  a  number  of  these  different  feeding  stuffs  ma}^  be  seen  by  reference 
to  Table  1,  which  shows  the  average  composition  as  determined  by 
anal3"sis,  and  when  possible  the  digestible  nutrients  furnished  by  each 
100  pounds  of  the  feeding  stuffs,  the  latter  data  having  been  calculated 
])y  the  aid  of  figures  obtained  in  digestion  experiments  with  horses. 
In  a  number  of  cases  such  calculations  have  not  been  made,  for  the 
reason  that  experiments  showing  the  digestibility  of  the  feeding  stuffs 
have  not  been  found,  nor  were  results  of  experiments  made  with 
similar  feeding  stuffs  available.  The  comparatively  large  number  of 
feeding  stuffs  of  which  the  digestibilit}^  has  not  been  determined  indi- 
cates one  of  the  lines  of  work  which  might  be  profitably  followed. 

170 


10 


Table  1. — Average  composition  of  a  number  of  feeding  stuffs. 


Percentage  composition. 


Digestible  materials  in 
100  pounds. 


Kind  of  food        . 
material. 

Water. 

Pro- 
tein, 

Fat. 

Nitro- 
gen- 
free 
ex- 
tract. 

Crude 
fiber. 

Asix. 

Pro- 
tein. 

Fat. 

Nitro- 
gen- 
free 
ex- 
tract. 

Crude 
fiber. 

lbs.  di- 
gesti- 
ble 

nutri- 
ents. 

GREEK  FODDEE. 

Per  ct. 
79.3 
66.2 
76.1 
73.0 
76.6 
62.2 
77.3 
73.0 
69.9 
61.6 
65.1 
70.8 
74.8 
71.8 

Per  ct, 
1.8 
2.1 
.5 
2.3 
2.6 
3.4 
2.3 
2.6 
2.4 
3.1 
4.1 
4.4 
3.9 
4.8 
2.4 
4.0 

2.2 

.8 

4.2 

2.7 

4.5 
6.0 
2.5 
1.9 
3.8 

4.8 
9.3 
7.4 
6.0 
7.9 
8.1 
5.9 
7.8 
7.5 
7.0 
7.5 
7.4 
11.6 

10.1 
12.3 
12.8 
15.7 
14.3 
16.6 
3.4 
3.0 
4.0 
5.2 

2.1 
1.1 

10.3 
10.5 
10.5 

Perct. 

0.5 

1.1 

.5 

.7 

.6 

1.4 

.7 

.9 

.8 

1.2 

1.3 

1.1 

.9 

1.0 

.4 

1.0 

1.1 

.3 

1.2 

1.5 

1.6 

1.4 

.7 

.5 

1.1 

1.6 
2.5 
2.7 
1.8 
1.9 
2.6 
2.5 
3.9 
2.1 
2.7 
1.7 
2.5 
3.1 

2.6 
i.o 
2.9 
2.9 
2.2 
2.9 
1.3 
1.2 
2.3 
1.3 

.1 
.4 

5.0 
5.0 
5.4 

Perct. 
12.2 
19.0 
14.9 
15.1 

6.8 
19.3 
12.0 
13.3 
14.3 
20.2 
17.6 
13.5 
11.0 
12.3 

7.1 
10.6 

15.0 
15.3 
11.6 
7.6 

U.7 
35.7 
28.3 
17.0 
31.5 

39.6 
48.7 
40.6 
55.3 
47.5 
41.0 
45.0 
37.8 
49.0 
38.4 
44.9 
42.1 
89.4 

41.3 
38.1 
40.7 
39.3 
42.7 
42.2 
43.4 
46.6 
42.4 
35.1 

17.3 
7.6 

70.4 
70.1 
09.0 

Per  ct. 
5.0 
8.7 
7.3 
6.9 
11.6 
11.2 
5.9 
8.2 
10.8 
11.8 
9.1 
8.1 
7.4 
7.4 
4.8 
6.7 

5.8 
6.4 
8.4 
o.O 

14.3 
21.4 
15.8 
11.0 
19.7 

26.8 
23.6 
27.2 
22.5 
28.6 
32.4 
29;  0 
23.0 
27.7 
25.0 
30.5 
27.2 
22.5 

27.6 
24.8 
25.6 
24.1 
25.0 
20.1 
38.1 
38.9 
37.0 
43.0 

.6 
1.3 

2.2 
1.7 
2.1 

Per  ct. 
1.2 
2.9 

2!o 
1.8 
2.5 
1.8 
2.0 
1.8 
2.1 
2.8 
2.1 
2.0 
2.7 
1.7 
2.6 

1.5 
1.1 
2.6 
2.9 

2.7 
5.5 
1.8 
1.2 
3.4 

8.0 
5.3 
6.1 
5.6 
5.2 
6.0 
4.4 
6.3 
CO 
6.9 
0.9 
5.5 
6.8 

5.5 
0.2 
8.3 
8.3 
7.4 
7.5 
4.2 
3.2 
5.1 
5.5 

1.0 
1.0 

1.5 
1.4 
1.5 

Us. 

Us. 

Us. 

Oiio- 
Us.      ries. 

Ck)m  leaves  and  busts 
Cornstiilks  stripped  .. 

Orchard  grass 

Kentucky  blue  grass . 
Red  clover 

....: 

3.44 
3.05 
3.75 

10.94 
8.91 
9.% 

3.79 
3.46 
3.46 

33,796 

Alsike  clovera 

Alfalfa 

28,681 
31,936 

oowpea 

83.6 
75  1 

SILAGE. 

74.4 
76.1 
72.0 
79.3 

42.2 
30.0 
50.9 
68.4 
40.5 

19.2 

10.6 

16.0 

8.8 

8.9 

9.9 

13.2 

21.2 

7.7 

20.0 

8.5 

15.3 

16.6 

12.9 
15.3 
9.7 
9.7 
8.4 
10.7 
9.6 
7.1 
9.2 
9.9 

78.9 
88.6 

10.6 
11.3 

1 

! 

Sorghum  silage 

Red -clover  silage 

Cowpea-vine  silage... 

HAT  AOT)  DRY  COARSE 
FODDER. 

Com    fodder,     field 

Comleaves.fleldcured 

1 

Kaflr-com  stover,  field 

■"■  I i"  ■■ 

I     j 

1 

. 

Redtop           

4.51 
4.62 
1.25 
4.45 
4.28 
4.00 
4.28 
4.23 
6.62 

5.77 
0.85 
7.13 
8.74 
10.67 

0.39 
.54 

1.18 
.81 
.43 
.56 
.35 
.52 
.61 

.54 
.95 
.83 
.83 
.42 

26.93 
23.25 
21.29 
21.43 
27.78 
21.77 
25.51 
23.87 
22.34 

23.42 
24. 19 
25.^4 
24.96 
29.98 

11.35 
12.86 
12.  a5 

9.13 
11.00 
10.23 
12.11 
10.80 

8.93 

10.96 
9.27 
9.57 
9.01 
9.75 

81,2^ 

Orchard  grass  b 

Timothv 

78,036 
69, 873 

Kentucky  blue  gra.<s<>. 

Hungarian  grass  b 

Meadow  fescue  b 

Italian  rye  grass  b 

Mixed  grasses  6 

Rowen  (mixed)  b 

Mixed    grasses    and 

08,536 
81,905 
69, 415 
79, 410 
74, 554 
73, 175 

76, 957 

Redclover 

Alsi  ke  cloverc 

White  clover  c 

\italfa 

78,984 
82,630 
82,942 
95,520 

.83 
1.11 

.85 

.79 

1.51 

12.20 
13.10 
11.91 

6.74 
6.S9 
6.55 

40,544 

Rve  straw  d 

42,020 

42,770 

ROOTS  AXD  TCBEES. 

Potatoes 

i.a5 

1.09 

5.95 
6.07 

C.07 

2.39 
2.39 
2.58 

17.20 
7.13 

62.09 
61.83 
61.39 

.05 

35,526 

Carrots 

15,290 

GRAINS  AND    OTHER 
SEEDS. 

Corn  dent 

136,636 

Com,  flint 

136,376 

Com,  all  varietiw 

10.9 

136,363 

170 


1  Digestibility  calculated  from  values  obtained  with  green  alfalfa. 
''Digestibility  calculated  from  values  obtained  with  meadow  hay. 
<•  Digestibility  calculated  from  valui-  obtained  with  red-clover  hay. 
d  Digestibility  calculated  from  valn«  s  ibluineil  with  wheat  straw. 


11 


Table  1. — Average  composition  of  a  number  of  feeding  stuffs — Continued. 


Percentage  composition. 

Digestible  materials  in 
100  pounds. 

En- 
ergy 
in  100 
lbs.  di- 
gesti- 
ble 
nutri- 
ents. 

Kind  of  food 
material. 

Water. 

Pro- 
tein. 

Fat. 

Nitro- 
gen- 
free 
ex- 
tract. 

Crude 
fiber. 

Ash. 

Pro- 
tein. 

Fat. 

Nitro- 
gen- 
free 
ex- 
tract. 

Crude 
fiber. 

GRAINS  AND  OTHEB 

.SEEDS — continued. 

Perct. 
12.5 
14.8 
10.9 
11.0 
11.6 
10.5 
9.1 
11.9 

15.0 
11.7 
15.1 
11.9 
10.5 

11.9 

10.7 

8.7 

8.6 

7.8 

7.7 

75.7 

8.0 

11.8 

11.9 

12.1 

11.8 

8.2 

11.1 

9.2 

9.9 
25.7 
25.1 

Perct. 
10.9 
10.6 
12.4 
11.8 
10.6 
11.9 
19.6 
2:3.5 

9.2 
11.0 

8.5 
10.5 
20.2 

9.6 

2.4 

9.8 
30.0 
23.4 
16.0 

5.4 
24.1 
14.7 
15.4 
15.6 
14.9 
42.3 

4.2 

32.9 

35.9 
a7.3 
a2.4 

Perct. 
2.9 
2.6 
1.8 
5.0 
1.7 
2.1 
20.1 
1.7 

3.8 
3.9 
3.5 
2.2 
1.2 

4.4 

.5 
6.2 
8.8 
8.3 
7.1 
1.6 
6.7 
2.8 
4.0 
4.0 
4.5 
13.1 
2.2 

7.9 

3.0 

Perct. 
70.5 
58.8 
69.8 
59.7 
72.5 
71.9 
28.3 
5.5.7 

68.9 
52.3 
64.8 
66.3 
51.1 

7: 

54.9 
62.6 
49.2 
53.2 
59.4 
12.5 
44.8 
63.9 
53.9 
60.4 
56.8 
23.6 
33.4 

35.4 

36.8 
658.2 
669.3 

Perct. 
1.9 
8.7 
2.7 
9.5 
1.7 
1.^ 
18.9 
3.8 

1.9 

18.0 

6.6 

6.5 

14.4 

.9 

30.1 

11.2 
2.6 
6.2 
6.1 
3.8 

13.0 
3.3 
9.0 
4.6 
7.4 
5.6 

46.3 

8.9 
8.8 

Perct. 
1.3 
4.5 
2.4 
3.0 
1.9 
1.8 
4.0 
3.4 

1.4 
3.1 
1.5 
2.6 
2.6 

2.2 

1.4 
1.5 
.8 
1.1 
3.7 
1.0 
3.4 
3.5 
5.8 
3.3 
4.6 
7.2 
2.8 

5.7 

5.6 
8.8 
3.2 

Ug. 

Us. 

Lbs. 

Lbs. 

Calo- 
ries. 

Barlev 

Oats.                 

9.39 
8.51 

3.60 
.72 

45.25 
63.29 

2.82   122,062 
1.70   139,747 

Rve 

Wheat 

MILL  PEODUCTS. 

6.99 
9.06 

2.55 
3.12 

64.70 
4.5.03 

.38   144.454 

2.59   118,7-27 

Corn-anrt-cob  meal 

1 i":".'"':      1 ; 

1              1              '• 

Ground  com  and  oats 
(equal  parts). 

BY  PEODCCTS. 

Corncob 

i 

Gluten  meal 

i 

Gluten  feed 

1                  ; 

Uatfeed 

1 1 

lirewers"  grains,  wet. . 

1 

Brewers' grains, dried. 

..: :J... .  1 

i i 

1 ! 

Wheat  middlings 

1 

i 1 



1 1 1 

Cotton-seed  hulls 



Linseed    meal,   new 
process 

Beet-sugar  molasses . . 
Cane-sugar  molasses. . 

7.3 
3.2 



58.2 
69.3 

::.:::: 

259,182 
298,398 

"Largely  nonalbuminoid  nitrogenous  materials, 
t  Verv  largelv  sugars. 


COMPARATIVE  VALTJE  OF  FEEDING  STUFFS. 


CEREAL  GRAINS. 

It  will  be  seen  that  the  cereal  grains  resemljle  one  another  quite 
closely  in  compcsition,  being  characterized  by  fairly  low  water  con- 
tent and  a  considerable  amount  of  protein  and  nitrogen-free  exti"act. 
Some  crude  fiber,  derived  from  the  outer  or  bran  layer  of  the  grain,  is 
also  present.  The  superiorit}'  of  one  grain  over  another,  if  it  exists 
at  all,  must  therefore  depend,  in  large  measure,  on  some  factor  other 
than  composition.  It  has  been  urged  by  many  that  oats  possess  a 
peculiar  stimulating  body  called '"avenin."  and  are  on  this  account 
superior  to  other  grains  for  horses.  Oats  undoubtedly  possess  a 
flavor  or  some  such  characteristic  which  makes  them  a  favorite  food 
with  horses,  but  the  most  careful  chemical  study  has  failed  to  reveal 

170 


12 

any  substance  of  the  nature  of  the  theoretical  avenin.  Recent  experi- 
ments have  shown  that  the  fat  of  oats  and  oat  straw  is  more  thoroughly 
digested  than  that  of  other  cereals.  This  is  suggested  as  a  possible 
explanation  of  the  superior  feeding  value  of  oats. 

It  is  believed  by  many  that  horses  show  more  spirit  when  oats  form 
part  of  the  ration.  Discussing  this  subject,  Director  W.  A.  Henrj^,  of 
the  Wisconsin  Experiment  Station,  says: 

Horses  nurtured  on  oats  show  mettle  which  can  not  be  reached  by  the  use  of  any 
other  feeding  stuff.  Then,  too,  there  is  no  grain  so  safe  for  horse  feeding,  the  animal 
rarely  being  seriously  injured  if  by  accident  or  otherwise  the  groom  deals  out 
an  oversupply.  This  safety  is  due  in  no  small  measure  to  the  presence  of  the  oat 
hull,  which  causes  a  given  weight  of  grain  to  possess  considerable  volume,  because 
of  which  there  is  less  liability  of  mistake  in  measuring  out  the  ration;  further, 
the  digestive  tract  can  not  hold  a  quantity  of  oat  grains  sufficient  to  produce  serious 
disorders.  Unless  the  horse  is  hard  pressed  for  time  or  has  poor  teeth  oats  should 
be  fed  in  the  whole  condition.     Musty  oats  should  be  avoided. 

Horsemen  generally  agree  that  new  oats  should  not  be  used,  though  Boussingault, 
conducting  extensive  experiments  with  army  horses,  arrived  at  the  conclusion  that 
new  oats  do  not  possess  the  injurious  qualities  attributed  to  them. 

The  grain  most  commonly  substituted  for  oats  in  this  country  is 
Indian  corn  or  maize.  It  is  so  commonly  used,  especiall}^  in  the 
South  and  West,  that  it  is  difficult  to  realize  the  prejudice  which  has 
existed  against  it  in  other  countries.  It  has  been  asserted  that  there 
are  climatic  and  other  conditions  which  render  corn  a  suitable  horse 
feed  in  America  which  do  not  exist  elsewhere.  This  hardl}'^  seems 
reasonable,  and  has  not  been  borne  out  by  the  numerous  experi- 
ments undertaken  in  France,  Germany,  and  other  counti'ies.  Such 
experiments  have  demonstrated  the  value  of  corn  and  shown  the  truth 
of  the  opinions  generally  held  in  this  countr}^  namel}^,  that  it  is  a  safe 
and  satisfactory  feeding  stuff  for  horses. 

Barley,  rye,  and  wheat  are  sometimes  fed  to  horses.  Their  resem- 
blance to  oats  in  composition  will  be  seen  b}^  reference  to  the  table. 
All  these  grains  should  be  substituted  on  the  basis  of  chemical  com- 
position, and  not  pound  for  pound.  As  would  be  expected,  the  ground 
grains  differ  little  from  the  same  varieties  before  grinding. 

Bran,  shorts,  middlings,  and  other  b3'-products  vary  in  composition, 
but  all  have  a  low  water  content,  while  the  crude  fiber  content  is 
generally  rather  high.  Their  nutritive  ingredients  are  principally 
protein  and  carboh3^drates.  The  high  crude  fiber  content  is  due  to 
the  fact  that  these  products  represent  the  outer  layers  of  the  grain, 
which  are  more  hard  and  firm  in  structure  than  the  interior  portion, 
which  consists  quite  largely  of  starch. 

The  total  number  of  tests  to  compare  different  feeding  stuffs  for 
horses  which  have  been  undertaken  by  the  agricultural  experiment 
stations  in  the  United  States  is  not  large  compared  with  the  tests 
made  with  other  farm  animals.  The  results  obtained  are,  however, 
interesting. 

170 


13 

The  problem  most  often  investigated  has  been  the  possibility  of  sub- 
stituting other  grains  for  oats  wholly  or  in  part  in  the  ration  of  work 
horses  without  lowering  their  efficiency.  In  this  connection  the  Maine 
Station  studied  the  value  of  pea  meal  and  middlings  fed  in  the  ratio  of 
1  part  of  the  former  to  2  parts  of  the  latter  and  of  mixed  grains  as  com- 
pared with  oats.  The  Utah  Station  compared  corn  and  bran  and  shorts 
with  oats;  the  North  Dakota  Station,  bran  and  shorts,  barley  and  bran, 
and  mixed  grains.  As  a  whole  these  and  similar  tests  offered  practical 
demonstrations  of  the  fact  that  oats  could  be  replaced  by  other  grains 
when  circumstances  warranted  it. 

At  the  New  Hampshire  Station  the  value  of  different  grain  mixtures 
for  horses  was  studied  with  a  view  to  learning  how  the  cost  of  a  ration 
could  be  diminished  by  lessening  the  amount  of  oats  fed.  The  rations 
consisted  of  different  mixtures  of  oats,  bran,  corn,  gluten  feed,  linseed 
meal,  and  cotton-seed  meal.  Fairly  good  results  were  obtained  with 
all  the  mixtures,  that  containing  cottou-seed  meal  being  least  satisfac- 
tory, as  it  was  not  at  first  relished  by  the  horses.  The  conclusion  was 
reached  that  any  mixed  ration  furnishing  the  desired  nutrients  at  a 
reasonable  price  should  be  considered.  A  mixture  of  bran  and  corn 
1:1  was  regarded  as  a  good  substitute  for  corn  and  oats  for  work 
horses. 

Tests  carried  on  at  the  Utah  Station  have  demonstrated  the  value  of 
wheat  for  horses,  a  grain  which  sometimes  has  so  low  a  market  value 
that  it  may  be  profitably  fed. 

The  North  Dakota  Station  has  carried  on  a  number  of  tests  with 
barley  which  furnish  experimental  evidence  that  this  grain  is  a  useful 
feed.  When  taxed  to  the  limit  by  hard  work  it  was  found,  in  the 
experiments  referred  to,  that  the  horses  could  not  be  supported  upon 
barley  quite  as  well  as  upon  oats,  and  that  it  was  worth  slightly  less  per 
pound  than  oats  with  animals  performing  a  medium  amount  of  work. 
Mules  did  not  take  as  kindl}^  to  barley  as  horses,  and  dainty  horses 
would  not  eat  it  quite  as  readily  as  oats.  On  the  Pacific  coast  barley 
is  extensivel}' grown  as  a  horse  feed,  and  its  use  for  this  purpose  is  old 
in  other  countries.  Elsewhere  barley  is  not  extensively"used  as  a  feed 
in  the  United  States,  doubtless  owing  to  the  fact  that  it  is  in  such 
demand  for  brewing  purposes  that  it  is  usually  high  in  price. 
Wherever  it  is  grown,  however,  it  is  frequently  possible  to  secure  at 
a  low  cost  grain  which  is  off  color  owing  to  rain  or  fog  during  harvest, 
and  which,  for  this  or  some  other  reason,  is  unfit  for  brewing,  but 
valuable  as  feed. 

Barley  may  be  fed  whole  to  horses  having  good  teeth  and  not  required 
to  do  severe  work.  Since  ground  barlej^,  like  wheat,  forms  a  pasty 
mass  when  mixed  with  saliva,  it  is  regarded  as  more  satisfactor}^  to 
crush  than  to  grind  it,  if  for  any  reason  it  is  considered  undesirable  to 
feed  the  grain  whole. 

170 


A  test  at  the  North  Dakota  Station  with  malted  barley  indicated  that 
this  is  not  an  economical  feed  for  work  horses. 

Kafir  corn  is  a  grain  which  is  assuming  more  and  more  importance 
in  the  semiarid  regions  of  the  United  States  and  is  replacing  corn  in 
many  ways.  The  Oklahoma  Station  has  tested  its  value  as  a  horse 
feed  and  regards  it  as  healthful,  palatable,  and  nutritious  with  a 
feeding  value  somewhat  less  than  corn.  The  grain  is  very  flinty  and 
to  secure  the  best  results  should  be  ground.  According  to  informa- 
tion recently  received  from  the  station  Kafir  corn  is  highly  esteemed 
locally  as  a  feed  for  horses,  many  being  kept  throughout  the  jeav  on 
this  grain  and  prairie  hay.  Unthrashed  heads  are  commonly  fed,  a 
head  of  Kafir  corn  being  regarded  as  equivalent  to  an  ear  of  corn. 
Some  years  ago  the  Mississippi  Station  in  tests  with  mules  found  that 
chicken  corn,  a  variety  closely  allied  to  Kafir  corn,  had  about  the  same 
feeding  value  as  maize. 

LEGUMINOUS  SEEDS. 

Beans  and  other  leguminous  seed  resemble  the  cereal  grains  in  hav- 
ing a  low  water  content.  In  Europe  horse  beans  are  a  common  feeding 
stuff  for  horses.  Though  such  feeds  are  known  to  be  useful  and  valu- 
able, they  are  seldom  given  to  horses  in  the  United  States  and  few  if 
any  tests  have  been  made  with  them  at  the  American  experiment  sta- 
tions. Miintz  found  that  beans  were  quite  thoroughly  digested  even 
when  fed  in  such  large  quantities  as  14  pounds  per  day.  According 
to  an  English  authority  this  amount  would  prove  harmful,  and  5  pounds 
of  beans  per  day  or  a  slightly  larger  quantity  of  peas  is  considered  all 
it  is  desirable  to  feed. 

OIL  CAKES  AND  OTHER  COMMERCIAL  BY-PRODUCTS. 

The  various  cakes,  gluten  materials,  and  similar  feeding  stuffs  are, 
generally  speaking,  commercial  by-products.  Thus,  cotton-seed  cake 
is  the  material  left  after  the  oil  has  been  expressed  from  the  cotton 
seed.  In  the  same  way,  linseed  cake  is  the  residue  obtained  in  the 
manufacture  of  linseed  oil.  If  this  cake  is  ground  it  becomes  linseed 
meal.  In  the  manufacture  of  beer  the  malted  grain  is  known  as  brew- 
ers' grain  and  is  best  fed  after  drying.  When  starch  is  manufactured 
from  corn,  the  nitrogenous  portion  of  the  grain  is  rejected  and  consti- 
tutes gluten  feed  and  gluten  meal.  The  cereal  breakfast  food  com- 
panies have  placed  many  feeding  stuffs  upon  the  market  made  up  of 
various  by-products  obtained  in  the  manufacture  of  their  breakfast 
foods  and  similar  products.  These  feeding  stuffs  vary  in  value,  but 
may  generall}^  be  said  to  represent  the  branny  portion  of  the  grains 
from  which  they  are  derived. 

Several  j^ears  ago  the  New  Jersey  Station  reported  an  extended 
study  of  the  value  of  dried  brewers'  grains  replacing  an  equal  weight 

170 


15 

of  oats  in  the  ration  of  work  horses.  The  uniformity  in  the  amount 
of  feed  consumed  and  the  weight  of  the  animals,  taken  in  connection 
with  the  work  performed,  indicates  that  there  was  no  material  differ- 
ence in  the  value  of  the  oat  ration  and  that  containing  dried  brewers' 
grains. 

Timothy  hay  at  the  time  being  worth  118,  wheat  bran  $17.50,  corn 
meal  $22,  dried  brewers'  grain  $17,  and  linseed  meal  $29  per  ton,  it 
was  calculated  a  farm  horse  weighing  1,000  pounds  can  be  fed  for 
$30.84  during  the  six  months  of  the  year  when  the  most  work  is 
performed  if  dried  brewers'  grain  furnishes  the  bulk  of  the  neces- 
sary protein,  and  for  $33.49  if  wheat  bran  and  linseed  meal  are  the 
chief  sources  of  this  nutrient.  If  the  fertilizing  value  of  the  feeding 
stuffs  is  taken  into  account  the  difference  in  favor  of  the  brewers' 
grains  is  less  marked. 

According  to  W.  J.  Kennedy,  of  the  Iowa  Station,  gluten  feed  has 
been  fed  with  excellent  results  by  many  prominent  feeders,  and  is 
especially  valuable  in  fitting  horses  for  market.  A  ration  composed 
of  2  parts  gluten  feed,  1  part  bran,  and  1  part  soaked  shelled  corn  was 
recommended.  This  is  rich  in  protein  and  is  suited  to  the  needs  of  a 
hard-working  animal.  It  is  stated  that  the  amount  of  the  above  mix- 
ture required  averages  from  12  to  14  pounds  per  day  for  a  horse  weigh- 
ing 1,400  pounds,  or  in  general,  a  pound  per  100  pounds  live  weight. 

Cotton-seed  meal  has  been  fed  to  a  greater  or  less  extent  to  horses, 
especially  in  the  South,  with  varying  results;  though  on  the  whole  the 
weight  of  evidence  seems  to  be  in  its  favor,  the  North  Carolina  Station, 
for  instance,  finding  that  2  pounds  per  head  could  be  satisfactorily 
given  as  part  of  a  mixed  ration.  The  New  Hampshire  Station,  as 
noted  above,  did  not  find  cotton-seed  meal  as  satisfactory  as  other 
materials  in  a  mixed  grain  ration. 

At  the  Louisiana  Station  this  feed  has  given  satisfactory  results 
with  horses  and  mules,  1  to  2  pounds  per  mule  per  day  being  fed 
with  success.  Six  pounds  is  regarded  as  the  maximum  quantity 
which  it  is  desirable  to  feed  and  animals  should  be  led  up  to  this 
amount  gradually.  Only  bright  yellow  cotton-seed  meal  of  a  nutty, 
pleasant  odor  and  taste  should  be  used  and  no  reddish  or  musty  meal 
should  ever  be  fed.  As  cotton-seed  meal  is  a  very  concentrated  feed 
excessive  quantities  should  be  avoided.  Care  should  be  taken  that 
uneaten  residues  do  not  ferment  in  the  feed  boxes. 

The  cereal  grains,  ground  and  unground,  commercial  by-products, 
leguminous  seeds,  oil  cakes,  and  similar  products  are  very  frequently 
called  concentrated  feeds,  the  name  being  suggested  by  the  fact  that, 
generally  speaking,  the  food  value,  especially  the  protein  content,  is 
high  in  comparison  with  the  bulk.  So  far  as  the  general  experience 
and  the  results  of  American  and  foreign  feeding  experiments  go,  most 

170 


16 

of  the  common  feeding  stuffs  in  the  group  are  wholesome  and  valuable 
for  horses.  If  any  one  of  these  feeding  stuffs  is  substituted  for  oats, 
which  may  be  taken  for  a  standard,  the  substitution  should  be  propor- 
tional to  the  composition  of  the  two  feeds  and  not  pound  for  pound. 

FORAGE  CROPS,  FRESH  AND  CURED. 

The  various  forage  crops — grass,  clover,  Kafir  corn,  corn,  etc. — all 
have  a  high  water  content;  that  is,  they  are  more  or  less  succulent 
and  juicy.  They  contain,  however,  considerable  nutritive  material, 
usually  protein  and  carbohydrates,  and  are  valuable  feeding  stuffs. 

The  leguminous  forage  crops— alfalfa,  clover,  cowpeas,  soy  beans, 
vetch,  etc. — are  richer  in  protein  than  the  grasses.  When  the  forage 
crops  are  dried  and  cured  the  resulting  hay  is  richer  in  proportion  to 
its  bulk  than  the  green  material;  in  other  words,  it  has  been  concen- 
trated by  the  evaporation  of  the  greater  part  of  the  water  present. 
However,  this  is  not  the  only  change  which  has  taken  place.  When 
hay  is  properly  cured  it  undergoes  a  peculiar  sort  of  fermention  or 
oxidation  which  materially  affects  its  composition. 

As  shown  by  recent  investigations,  fermentation  improves  the  hay 
by  diminishing  the  quantity  of  crude  fiber  and  by  increasing  the  rela- 
tive amount  of  other  nutrients,  especially  nitrogen-free  extract.  The 
greater  the  fermentation  the  more  the  crude  fiber  is  diminished,  and 
this  is  especially  marked  when  ha}^  is  dried  on  racks.  Hay  which  has 
undergone  proper  fermentation  has  a  better  flavor  and  agrees  better 
with  animals  and  is  apparently  more  digestible  than  hay  which  has 
dried  quickly  in  the  sun  without  fermentation. 

The  feeding  value  of  different  forage  crops,  fresh  and  cured,  depends 
in  considerable  degree  upon  the  stage  of  growth,  as  has  been  shown 
by  a  number  of  chemical  studies  of  the  composition  of  different  crops 
and  cuttings  of  alfalfa,  young  and  more  matured  corn  forage,  etc. 
Generally  speaking,  the  nutritive  value  of  the  crop  increases  until 
growth  is  complete  and  diminishes  somewhat  as  the  plants  mature  or 
become  overripe.  Straw,  the  fully  ripened  stalk  of  cereal  grains, 
contains  some  nutritive  material,  but  is  less  nutritious  than  the  same 
portion  of  the  plant  cut  before  ripening.  In  the  perfectly  ripe  con- 
dition the  nutritive  material,  elaborated  in  different  portions  of  the 
ordinary  forage  plants,  has  been  largely  conveyed  to  the  seed  and  used 
for  its  development  or  stored  as  reserve  material. 

Green  forage  crops  are  frequently  preserved  by  ensiling.  In  this 
process  the  material  undergoes  a  peculiar  oxidation  which  correspond- 
ingly changes  it  in  composition  and  food  value.  Some  of  the  carbo- 
hydrates are  changed  into  alcohol,  acetic  and  other  acids,  and  crude 
fiber  is  undoubtedly  softened  somewhat,  and  possibly  the  silage  is  thus 
rendered  more  digestible.  Bodies  having  peculiar  flavor  and  odor  are 
also  formed. 

170 


The  green  crops,  hay,  straw,  other  cured  crops,  and  silage  are  fre- 
quently called  "coarse  fodder"  or  "roughage."  This  term  is  due  to 
the  fact  that  they  contain  a  comparatively  small  amount  of  nutritive 
material  and  a  high  proportion  of  crude  fiber  as  compared  with  their 
total  bulk.  Although  inferior  to  concentrated  feeds  in  composition, 
they  are  an  essential  part  of  the  ration  of  horses  and  other  farm  ani- 
mals, serving  to  give  the  required  bulk  to  the  food  and  being  useful 
in  other  ways. 

It  is  believed  that  unless  the  food,  when  taken  into  the  stomach,  is 
comparatively  bulky  and  the  mass  is  more  or  less  loose  in  structure, 
it  is  not  readily  acted  on  by  the  digestive  juices.  The  intestinal  tract 
of  the  horse  is  long  in  proportion  to  the  size  of  the  animal,  and  food 
remains  in  it  for  several  days.  Experiments  indicate  that  crude  fiber, 
which  is  only  slightly  digestible  by  man,  is  quite  thoroughly  digested 
by  horses,  and  even  more  thoroughly  digested  by  ruminants,  owing  its 
digestibility  to  the  fact  that  it  is  fermented  for  a  comparatively  long 
period  by  micro-organisms  in  the  intestines. 

A  number  of  experiments  have  been  made  to  learn  the  comparative 
value  for  horses  of  different  forage  crops,  fresh  and  cured,  the  Ameri- 
can experiment  stations  naturally  having  given  their  attention  to  the 
coarse  fodders  of  most  importance  in  this  country. 

The  Virginia  Station  reported  a  number  of  trials  on  the  value  of 
corn  silage  for  horses  and  mules.  Gradually  increasing  amounts  were 
fed  until  they  were  given  all  they  could  eat,  with  hay  and  grain  in 
addition.  The  tests  indicated  that  silage  is  a  satisfactory  feed  pro- 
vided the  animals  are  gradually  accustomed  to  it.  The  New  Hamp- 
shire Station,  in  connection  with  a  study  of  the  value  of  different  grain 
mixtures  for  work  horses,  compared  the  relative  merits  of  timothy  hay 
and  corn  stover,  the  two  sorts  of  fodder  being  found  equally  valuable 
under  the  experimental  conditions.  From  the  work  of  the  Oklahoma 
Station,  Kafir-corn-  stover  is  said  to  have  a  feeding  value  about  equal 
to  corn  stover.  Running  the  stalks  through  a  thrashing  machine  is 
considered  a  satisfactory  method  of  preparing  this  feeding  stuff. 

The  value  of  oat  straw,  prairie  hay,  and  brome  grass  was  shown 
by  the  work  of  the  North  Dakota  Station,  the  brome  grass  giving  as 
good  results  when  fed  to  work  horses  as  timothy  hay.  When  Ber- 
muda grass  hay  and  timothy  hay  were  compared  at  the  Mississippi 
Station  no  marked  differences  in  the  cost  of  the  rations  nor  in  the  gains 
made  by  mules  were  observed. 

The  results  of  extended  series  of  experiments  at  the  Utah  Station 
have  been  very  favorable  to  the  use  of  alfalfa  hay  as  a  coarse  fodder 
for  horses.  The  fact  is  recognized  that,  like  other  leguminous  crops, 
it  contains  a  larger  amount  of  protein  in  proportion  to  its  bulk  than 
timothy.  Feeding  alfalfa  did  not  exercise  any  bad  effects  on  the  health 
25352— No.  170—03 2 

170 


18 

of  the  horses.  It  is  stated  that  attacks  of  colic  and  other  digestive 
disorders  can  be  prevented  by  a  judicious  system  of  feeding.  In  dis- 
cussing their  investigations  the  station  points  out  that  it  is  absurd  to 
claim  that  a  horse  will  not  eat  more  than  is  necessary  if  allowed  the 
libert}'-  of  the  stack  and  the  grain  bin.  The  argument  is  sometimes 
advanced  that  a  horse  under  natural  conditions,  on  pasture,  never  eats 
more  than  is  necessary,  and  that  under  these  conditions  he  is  never 
subject  to  digestive  disorders.  While  this  is  undoubtedly  true,  it  must 
be  kept  in  mind  that  as  soon  as  the  horse  is  stabled  and  required  to 
work,  he  has  been  taken  away  from  his  natural  condition  and  placed 
in  an  unnatural  evironment. 

It  was  observed  that  larger  amounts  of  water  were  consumed  on  the 
alfalfa  ration  and  that  the  amount  of  urine  excreted  was  also  larger 
and  had  a  higher  specific  gravity.  The  excess,  however,  was  never 
found  great  enough  to  cause  any  inconvenience.  These  experiments 
at  the  Utah  Station  are  especially  interesting  since  they  confirm  the 
results  of  twelve  years'  practical  tests  of  the  feeding  value  of  alfalfa. 
During  this  period  the  station  horses  have  always  received  this  mate- 
rial as  a  coarse  fodder,  except  when  they  were  fed  other  rations  for 
experimental  purposes. 

The  Wyoming  Station  has  also  made  some  experiments  which  dem- 
onstrate the  value  of  alfalfa  hay  as  a  horse  feed.  In  discussing  the 
subject  of  alfalfa  for  horses,  the  California  Station  says  in  effect  that 
in  regions  where  it  is  a  staple  crop  the  quantity  of  protein  which  can 
be  supplied  in  green  and  cured  alfalfa  is  so  great  that  much  less  grain 
is  required  than  when  the  coarse  fodder  consists  of  cereal  ha^^s  only. 
For  the  Pacific  coast,  where  cereal  hays  replace  so  largely  those  from 
meadow  grasses,  the  station  recommends  a  ration  of  alfalfa  hay  with 
wheat  hay  or  barley  hay  and  grain. 

In  a  recent  discussion  of  horse  feeding  under  local  conditions  the 
Louisiana  Station  has  pointed  out  the  value  of  cowpea-vine  hay. 

The  outcome  of  the  different  experiments  is  in  accord  with  the  obser- 
vation of  careful  feeders,  viz,  that  the  various  common  coarse  fodders 
may  be  fed  to  horses  as  circumstances  demand.  Although  timothy 
hay  is  in  many  regions  regarded  as  the  preferable  coarse  feed,  yet 
experience  has  shown  that  corn  fodder,  hay  from  wheat,  barley,  and 
other  cereal  grains,  and  from  clover  and  alfalfa  may  be  substituted 
for  it.  That  this  is  what  might  be  expected  is  shown  b}^  a  study  of 
the  composition  of  these  feeding  stuffs.  They  resemble  one  another 
very  closely  in  the  character  and  amount  of  nutrients  which  they  con- 
tain— alfalfa,  clover,  and  other  leguminous  hays  being  richer  in  pro- 
tein than  the  cured  grasses  and  cereal  forage.  Straw  is  not  much  fed 
to  horses  in  the  United  States,  but  is  a  common  feeding  stuff  in  Europe. 
As  shown  by  its  composition  and  digestibilit}^  it  compares  quite  favor- 

170 


19 

ably  with  other  coarse  fodders.  In  accordance  with  the  general  prin- 
ciple the  substitution  of  one  coarse  fodder  for  another  in  a  ration 
should  always  be  made  on  the  basis  of  composition  and  digestibility, 
rather  than  pound  for  pound. 

Very  few  tests  have  been  made  on  the  comparative  value  of  different 
uncured  feeds  or  different  sorts  of  pasturage  in  horse  feeding,  though 
all  the  common  forage  crops  are  regarded  as  wholesome  if  properly 
fed. 

Such  feed  is  known  to  be  very  dependent  upon  the  fertilizer  used 
for  the  crop,  the  method  of  harvesting,  and  the  condition  of  the  animal 
fed.  Thus  it  is  said  that  for  young  horses  grass  grown  on  dry  land 
rich  in  lime  produces  compact  and  well-developed  bone.  Green  fodder 
does  not  contain  sufficient  nutritive  material  in  proportion  to  its  bulk 
to  make  it  an  adequate  feeding  stuff  for  horses  performing  much  work, 
but  its  importance  as  pasturage  is  well  recognized. 

ROOTS  AND  TUBERS. 

Carrots,  Swedish  turnips  or  ruta-bagas,  and  other  roots  and  tubers, 
green  vegetables,  and  fruits  contain  a  high  percentage  of  water  and 
small  amounts  of  the  different  classes  of  nutrients.  Generally  speak- 
ing, the  percentage  of  crude  fiber  is  smaller  than  in  the  green  forage 
crops;  but  since  the  proportion  of  nutritive  material  is  small  in  com- 
parison  with  the  total  bulk,  they  are  ordinarily  referred  to  as  coarse 
fodder.  The  use  of  these  materials  as  food  for  horses  has  been 
attempted  at  different  times  with  varying  success,  but  it  is  not  followed 
to  any  great  extent  in  this  country,  though  quite  common  in  Europe. 

Ten  pounds  of  roots  has  been  suggested  as  the  maximum  quantity 
which  may  be  fed  without  unduly  distending  the  stomach  or  being  too 
laxative.  "An  addition  of  5  or  G  pounds  of  carrots  to  the  daily  food 
ration  of  ordinary  working  horses,"  Captain  M.  H.  Hayes  believes, 
"will  almost  always  be  of  benefit;  and  3  pounds  a  day  will  not  be  too 
much  for  race  horses,  even  in  the  highest  state  of  training.  It  is  safest 
to  give  carrots  sliced  longitudinally,  so  that  they  may  not  stick  in  the 
animal's  gullet  and  thus  choke  him." 

In  the  opinion  of  a  recent  German  writer,  about  12  pounds  of  raw 
potatoes  per  1,000  pounds  live  weight  may  be  fed  to  horses  with 
advantage  and,  if  supplemented  with  proper  feed,  there  need  bo  no 
fear  of  physiological  disturbances.  When  fed  in  this  amount  the 
potatoes  should  be  mixed  with  hay  or  cut  straw  to  insure  their  being 
properly  chewed.  If  small,  they  may  be  fed  whole;  if  large,  they 
should  be  sliced.  In  any  case  only  ripe,  healthy,  unsprouted  tubers 
should  be  used.  It  is  said  that  horses  should  not  be  watered  immedi- 
ately after  a  ration  containing  potatoes. 

170 


MOLASSES  AND  OTHER  BY-PRODUCTS  OF  SUGAR  MAKING. 

The  beet  chips,  diffusion  residue,  and  other  by-products  obtained  in 
the  manufacture  of  beet  sugar,  consist  of  the  sugar  beet  from  which  a 
considerable  portion  of  the  carbohydrates  has  been  removed.  The 
total  amount  of  nutritive  material  present,  however,  is  fairl}^  large. 
These  products,  properly  speaking,  are  coarse  fodders.  Molasses, 
which  consists  almost  entirely  of  carbohydrates  (sugars),  was  used  as 
early  as  1830  as  a  feed  for  horses,  and, has  recently  attracted  consid- 
erable attention  in  this  connection.  When  used  for  this  purpose 
it  is  usually  sprinkled  on  dry  feed,  being  first  diluted  with  water,  or  it 
is  mixed  with  some  material  which  absorbs  it  and  renders  it  easy  to 
handle,  such  as  peat  dust,  or  with  some  material  rich  in  nitrogen,  as 
dried  blood.  In  the  latter  case  the  mixture  more  nearly  represents  a 
concentrated  feed  than  the  molasses  alone,  or  molasses  mixed  with  an 
absorbent  material  only.  Cane-sugar  molasses  is  also  used  as  a  feed- 
ing stuff.  It  differs  from  beet  molasses,  in  that  it  contains  glucose  in 
addition  to  cane  sugar,  and  has  a  much  smaller  percentage  of  salts. 

The  number  of  experiments  which  have  been  reported  in  the  last 
few  years  on  the  feeding  value  of  molasses  is  fairly  large.  Accord- 
ing to  the  Louisiana  Station,  cane-sugar  molasses  has  been  extensively 
used  for  some  time  locally  as  a  feed  for  horses  and  mules,  many  feed- 
ers keeping  mules  exclusively  on  rice  bran  and  molasses  in  addition  to 
cowpea  hay.  The  general  custom  is  to  feed  the  molasses  from  a  large 
trough,  allowing  the  mules  to  eat  it  ad  libitum.  It  is  said  the}^  will 
consume,  with  apparent  relish,  from  8  to  12  pounds  per  head  daily. 
The  mules  at  the  Louisiana  Station  have  been  fed  molasses  daily  ad 
libitum  for  eight  or  ten  years,  and,  it  is  stated,  show  its  good  effects 
"in  their  splendid  condition,  lively  action,  and  endurance  of  work." 

When  molasses,  diluted  with  water  and  sprinkled  over  chopped  hay, 
was  fed  to  some  army  horses  in  Porto  Rico' for  about  five  months  the 
condition  of  the  horses  improved.  Apparently,  a  daily  ration  of  35 
pounds  of  grass  and  13  to  15  pounds  of  molasses  per  1,000  pounds  live 
weight  was  sufficient  to  maintain  a  horse  in  good  condition.  It  was 
noted  that  molasses  possessed  some  disadvantages,  namel}^  it  attracted 
insects,  notably  flies  and  ants,  stuck  to  the  animaPs  coat,  smearing  his 
face  and  breast,  halter  and  halter  strap,  etc. ,  and  caused  some  trouble 
and  delay  in  mixing  it  with  the  other  feeds. 

Other  tests  in  the  United  States,  France,  Holland,  and  elsewhere 
have  been  favorable  to  the  use  of  molasses  as  a  feeding  stuff,  and  from 
the  results  of  all  these,  it  seems  fair  to  conclude  that  it  can  be 
safel}^  fed  to  horses  when  its  cost  in  comparison  with  other  feeding 
stuffs  warrants  its  use,  a  quart  night  and  morning,  diluted  with  water, 
being  apparently  a  reasonable  amount.  Apart  from  the  nutritive 
material  molasses  supplies  it  has  a  value  as  an  appetizer  and  frequently 
renders  poor  hay  or  other  feed  more  palatable. 

170 


21 

In  Europe  favorable  results  have  attended  the  use  of  such  mixtures 
as  blood-molasses,  but  these  feeds  are  as  yet  little  known  in  the  United 
States. 

FRUITS,  FRESH  AND  DRIED 

Althoug-h  horses  are  often  given  apples  as  they  are  given  lumps  of 
sugar,  fruit  is  not  generally  thought  of  as  a  feeding  stuff,  yet  its  use 
for  this  purpose  is  by  no  means  novel.  The  Arabs,  it  is  said,  com- 
monlv  feed  their  horses  fresh  dates,  which  are  apparently  eaten  with 
relisb.  Sometimes  the  dates  (3  or  4  pounds  at  a  time)  are  mixed  with 
water  to  a  sort  of  mush  before  feeding.  It  is  believed  that  dates  are 
fattening,  but  that  they  do  not  produce  muscle. 

In  California,  and  possibly  in  other  regions,  fruit,  especially  prunes 
and  other  dried  fruit,  is  sometimes  fed  when  the  market  is  overstocked 
or  when  for  some  other  reason  it  can  not  be  profitably  sold.  Accord- 
ing to  a  statement  recently  published,  small  prunes  of  low  market 
value  have  been  successfully  fed  to  horses  for  a  long  period.  It  is 
stated  that  the  horses  eat  them  with  relish.  The  pits  should  be 
crushed  before  feeding. 

All  common  fruits  when  fresh  are  very  succulent,  containing  on  an 
average  80  to  90  per  cent  water,  the  nutritive  material  consisting 
almost  entirely  of  carboh^^drates.  When  dried — i.  e.,  concentrated 
by  evaporation — they  are  much  more  nutritious.  Raisins,  prunes, 
dried" peaches,  etc.,  contain  about  25  per  cent  water  and  about  TO  per 
cent  carbohydrates,  of  which  a  considerable  part  is  sugar.  The  value 
of  sugar  as  a  nutrient  is  recognized,  and  it  is  not  surprising,  therefore, 
that  fruits,  especially  after  drying,  should  have  a  considerable  feed- 
ing value.  The  feeding  value  of  fruit  has  been  especially  studied  at 
the  California  Station. 

Succulent  fruits  or  vegetables  are  little  used  in  the  United  States, 
but  it  is  interesting  to  note  that  in  South  Africa  pumpkins  are  often 
given  to  horses  as  green  feed.  In  Oklahoma  and  doubtless  other  regions 
where  they  are  grown  extensively,  stock  melons  are  fed  to  all  farm 
stock,  including  horses,  when  there  is  a  shortage  of  other  succulent 
crops. 

INJURIOUS  FEEDING  STUFFS. 

In  feeding  horses  precautions  should  always  be  taken  to  avoid  mate- 
rials harmful  in  themselves,  or  those  which  have  become  harmful. 
Dirt,  small  stones,  etc.,  should  be  removed  from  grain  by  proper 
screening,  and  all  feeding  stuffs  should  be  clean. 

There  are  a  number  of  plants  which'  are  poisonous  to  horses  when 
eaten  in  any  considerable  amount.  The  loco  plants,  mostly  species  of 
Astragalus,  are  ordinarily  regarded  as  of  this  class.  These  plants  have 
been  studied  by  the  Colorado,  Kansas,  South  Dakota,  Montana,  and 
Oklahoma  stations  among  others,  and  by  this  Department,  but  the 

170 


22 

results  obtained  are  not  entirely  conclusive.  The  poisonous  properties 
of  rattlebox  {Crotalaria  sagittaUs)  were  demonstrated  by  the  South 
Dakota  Station,  and  those  of  some  lupines  by  the  Montana  Station. 
According  to  recent  experiments  at  the  Vermont  Station  the  common 
horsetail  {Equisetwn  arvense)  may  cause  poisoning  when  present  in  hay. 
It  was  found  that  when  horses  were  fed  cured  horsetail  equal  in  amount 
to  not  more  than  one-fourth  of  their  coarse  fodder  ration,  symptoms 
of  poisoning  were  noticed,  and  if  the  feeding  was  continued  the  horses 
died.  The  symptoms  of  poisoning  were  less  noticeable  with  young 
than  with  old  horses,  and  also  when  a  liberal  grain  ration  was  supplied. 
It  was  also  observed  that  the  green  plant  was  less  harmful  than  the 
dry,  possibly  owing  to  the  fact  that  green  fodder  is  somewhat  laxative. 

Feeds  which  are  ordinarilj"  wholesome  ma}^  under  certain  conditions 
be  harmful.  Thus,  there  is  a  widespread  and  apparently  justifiable 
prejudice  against  moldy  or  decomposing  feeding  stuflFs.  Experiments 
carried  on  at  the  Kansas  and  Indiana  stations  showed  that  the  contin- 
ued feeding  of  moldy  corn  induced  intestinal  and  nervous  disorders 
of  a  serious  nature.  It  is  a  matter  of  common  observation  that  feed 
which  has  been  wet  will  ferment  or  sour  readily  and  cause  intestinal 
disorders.    This  has  to  be  guarded  against  especially  in  warm  climates. 

Plants  which  are  ordinarily  wholesome  may  become  harmful  if 
infested  with  ergot.  The  effect  of  ergot  on  horses  has  been  studied  by 
the  Iowa,  Kansas,  and  Montana  stations  and  others.  It  is  generally 
conceded  that  the  presence  of  ergot  is  a  cause  of  rheumatism.  Some 
feeds  which  are  regarded  as  wholesome  when  properly  fed  may  some- 
times prove  injurious  if  fed  for  a  long  time  or  in  improper  quantities. 
Thus,  millet  hay,  in  many  sections  of  the  Western  United  States,  is 
believed  to  cause  the  so  called  millet  disease  of  horses.  This  question 
was  studied  by  the  North  Dakota  Station.  It  was  found  that  long- 
continued  feeding  of  millet  hay  caused  lameness  and  other  symptoms 
of  poisoning,  but  the  specific  cause  to  which  the  dangerous  properties 
of  millet  are  due  was  not  learned,  though  later  work  at  the  station 
indicates  that  it  is  a  glucosid. 

An  explanation  of  the  poisoning  of  stock  by  young  sorghum  and 
some  other  forage  plants  is  offered  b}^  the  discovery  of  a  peculiar 
glucosid  in  a  number  of  varieties  of  sorghum  {Sorghum  vulgare),  which, 
under  the  influence  of  a  special  ferment  present  in  the  plant,  liberates 
prussic  acid.  It  is  thought  probable  that  this  acid,  which  is  a  ver}'^ 
active  poison,  may  be  likewise  liberated  in  the  digestive  tract  of  ani- 
mals feeding  on  the  young  plants. 

For  a  number  of  years  the  Nebraska  Experiment  Station  has  studied 
sorghum  poisoning,  and  has  recently  demonstrated  the  presence  of 
prussic  acid  in  the  green  leaves  of  young  and  old  sorghum  plants  and 
Kafir  corn.  The  poison,  it  is  stated,  is  alwa3\s  present  in  at  least 
minute  traces,  but  ])ecomes  dangerous  only  when  the  plant  is  arrested 
by  dry  weather  at  certain  stages  of  its  growth.     Sunlight,  such  as  pre- 

170 


28 

vails  in  the  arid  and  semiarid  regions  of  the  United  States,  causes  the 
development  of  the  poison  in  excess. 

METHOD  OF  FEEDING. 

The  method  of  feeding  is  a  subject  which  is  often  discussed,  the 
questions  of  especial  interest  being  the  comparative  merits  of  cooked 
and  raw  feed,  dry  and  soaked  grain,  ground  and  unground  grain,  and 
cut  or  chaffed  and  uncut  coarse  fodder.  The  number  of  experiments 
which  have  to  do  with  these  topics  is  not  large. 

COOKED  AND  RAW  FEED. 

One  of  the  early  French  investigators  compared  oats  and  an  equal 
volume  of  rye  boiled  until  the  grain  burst.  The  results  were  not  favor- 
able to  cooking  the  feed.  According  to  another  of  his  tests,  30.8  pounds 
of  mashed  steamed  potatoes  could  not  replace  11  pounds  of  hay.  The 
potatoes  were  mixed  with  cut  straw  and  fed  cold. 

It  is  often  claimed  that  cooking  feed  increases  its  palatability  and 
digestibility.  The  general  conclusion  drawn  from  tests  with  farm 
animals  is  that  this  belief  is  not  warranted,  and  that  the  cost  of  cook- 
ing is  not  made  up  for  by  the  increased  value  of  the  ration.  It  has 
been  stated  on  good  authority  that  boiled  feed  is  useful  for  colts,  brood 
mares,  and  stallions  if  fed  two  or  three  times  per  week,  and  that  draft 
horses  which  are  being  prepared  for  sale  or  for  exhibition  may  be 
given  cooked  feed  once  a  da}^  with  advantage.  An  excellent  feed  for 
horses,  it  is  said,  ma}"  be  made  by  boiling  barley  and  oats  in  a  kettle 
with  considerable  water  and  pouring  the  mass  over  chaffed  hay,  allow- 
ing the  whole  to  stand  until  the  ha}'  is  well  softened.  Bran,  roots, 
and  a  small  quantit}^  of  oil  meal  may  be  added  also. 

DRY  AND  SOAKED  FEED. 

It  is  often  claimed  that  soaking  feed,  especially  hard  grain,  renders  it 
more  easil}^  masticated  and  improves  its  digestibility.  It  is  doubtful 
if  the  matter  is  as  important  with  horses  as  some  other  classes  of  farm 
animals.  It  has  been  found  in  experimental  tests  that  healthy  horses 
with  good  teeth  digested  dry  beans  and  corn  as  well  as  the  same  mate- 
rials which  had  been  soaked  in  water  for  21  hours. 

Soaking  or  wetting  feed  may  sometimes  be  of  importance  as  regards 
the  health  of  horses.  According  to  the  experience  of  an  English 
feeder,  chaffed  straw,  which  was  fed  on  account  of  a  shortage  in  the 
hay  crop,  gave  better  results  when  soaked  than  when  dry.  The  dry 
material  caused  colic  and  constipation.  It  was  also  observed  that  the 
horses  relished  soaked  grain  (corn  and  oats  1:1). 

It  is  believed  that  the  dust  in  hay  causes  heaves,  and  to  avoid  such 
trouble  both  long  and  cut  ha}^  especiall}^  clover,  is  very  often  damp- 
ened before  feeding,  to  lay  Ihe  dust. 

170 


24 

GROTTND  AND  UNQBOUND  FEED. 

Opinions  differ  as  regards  the  advantages  of  grinding  grain.  For 
horses  which  are  out  of  the  stable  during  the  day  and  worked  hard,  it 
is  quite  generally  believed  that  all  grains,  with  the  possible  exception 
of  oats,  should  be  ground,  and  for  those  at  extremely  hard  work,  all 
grain  should  be  ground  and  mixed  with  chaffed  hay.  For  idle  horses 
oats  or  grain  should  not  be  ground,  nor  should  hay  or  straw  be  chaffed. 
In  other  words,  provided  the  animals  have  time  to  masticate  their 
ration  thoroughly,  grinding  is  not  necessary.  When  this  is  not  the 
case,  grinding  takes  the  place  of  thorough  mastication  to  some  extent, 
and  increases  the  assimilation  of  the  ration. 

When  whole  oats  were  compared  with  ground  wheat  and  bran  at  the 
North  Dakota  Station,  the  horses  fed  the  former  ration  ate  somewhat 
more  and  showed  a  slight  loss  in  weight,  while  doing  a  little  less  work 
than  those  fed  the  ground  grain.  At  the  Utah  Station,  tests  of  the 
comparative  merits  of  ground  and  unground  corn,  oats,  and  wheat  fed 
under  different  experimental  conditions  indicated  that  the  ground  and 
unground  grains  were  equally  satisfactory.  When  whole  and  ground 
oats,  corn,  and  barley  were  compared  for  colts  at  the  Iowa  Station, 
somewhat  larger  gains  were  made  on  the  ground  feed. 

The  comparative  digestibility  of  different  ground  and  unground 
feeding  stuffs  was  tested  at  the  Maryland  Station.  It  appeared  that 
ground  corn  and  oats  were  more  thoroughly  digested  than  the  unground 
grain.  In  this  connection  it  may  be  noted  that  similar  results  have 
been  obtained  in  tests  with  other  farm  animals,  but  it  is  commonly 
believed  that  the  difference  in  digestibility  is  often  not  sufficient  to  pay 
for  the  cost  of  grinding. 

From  all  the  American  tests,  and  those  which  have  been  made  in 
Europe,  it  appears  fair  to  say  that  there  is  no  very  marked  advantage 
in  grinding  grain  for  healthy  horses  with  good  teeth. 

CUT  AND  UNCUT  COARSE  FODDER. 

It  is  perhaps  the  general  opinion  that  when  horses  have  ample  time 
for  chewing  and  digesting  their  feed  there  is  no  necessity  for  chaffing 
or  cutting  hay  and  straw.  When  the  time  for  feeding  is  limited 
chaffing  and  cutting  coarse  fodder  is  regarded  as  advantageous.  This 
is  an  item  of  special  importance  with  hard-worked  horses  kept  in  the 
stable  only  at  night.  Furthermore,  chaffed  feed  occupies  less  space 
for  storage  than  uncut  ha}^  or  straw,  and  can  be  readily  handled. 
Shredding  corn  fodder  is  regarded  as  an  economical  practice,  but 
apparently  few  experiments  on  the  comparative  merits  of  shredded 
and  whole  corn  fodder  for  horses  have  yet  been  reported.  No  marked 
variation  was  observed  in  the  weights  of  two  lots  of  horses  fed  whole 


25 

and  cut  timothy  or  whole  and  cut  alfalfa  and  clover  hay  mixed  in  a 
test  carried  on  at  the  Utah  Station. 

At  the  Maryland  Station,  in  studies  of  the  digestibility  of  a  number 
of  whole  and  ground  feeds,  it  was  found  that  grinding  corn  shives — 
i.  e.,  cornstalks  from  which  the  blades,  husks,  and  pith  are  removed — 
until  the  material  resembled  coarse  bran  did  not  destroy  its  value  as  a 
coarse  fodder,  and  that  the  finely  ground  material  supplied  the  neces- 
sary bulk  to  the  ration  as  well  as  the  same  material  unground.  It 
was  further  claimed  that  the  finely  ground  coarse  fodder  possessed  an 
advantage  over  the  unground  material  in  that  it  could  be  mixed  with 
grain  to  form  a  well-balanced  ration  and  fed  to  horses  on  shipboard, 
or  under  similar  conditions,  more  readily  than  unground  fodder  and 
grain. 

FATTENING  HORSES  FOR  MARKET. 

Fattening  horses  so  that  they  will  reach  market  in  good  condition 
for  sale  is  quite  an  important  industry  in  some  regions.  For  instance, 
in  Iowa  there  are  a  number  of  feeders  who  thus  prepare  large  num- 
bers of  horses  for  the  Chicago  market,  and  ofiicials  of  the  Iowa 
Experiment  Station  have  gathered  some  data  on  the  subject.  The 
general  practice  is  to  feed  generously  and  give  little  exercise.  With 
proper  feeding  and  care,  as  many  as  a  dozen  horses  of  a  lot  fed  for 
market  have  in  some  instances  made  an  average  gain  of  3. 75  pounds 
per  head  per  day  throughout  a  period  of  ninety  days.  Somewhat 
larger  gains  have  been  made  under  exceptional  circumstances. 

WATERING  HORSES. 

A  discussion  of  the  subject  of  watering  horses  should  take  into 
account  th&  reasons  why  water  is  needed,  the  amounts  required,  the 
proper  time  for  watering,  and  related  topics. 

Horses,  like  other  animals,  require  water,  which  should  always  be  of 
good  quality,  for  moistening  their  food,  so  that  the  digestive  juices  may 
permeate  it  readily,  for  diluting  the  blood  and  other  fluids  of  the  body, 
and  for  other  physiological  uses.  It  may  be  assumed  that  under  any 
given  normal  condition  the  body  contains  a  definite  amount  of  water. 
When  any  considerable  amount  of  water  is  lost  from  the  body,  a 
sensation  of  thirst  is  experienced,  showing  that  more  water  is  needed 
to  take  its  place.  Practically  all  the  water  excreted  leaves  the  body 
in  the  feces,  urine,  perspiration,  and  breath.  The  amount  eliminated 
in  each  increases  with  the  amount  of  water  consumed,  the  largest 
amount  being  excreted  in  the  feces. 

In  addition  to  the  water  drunk  by  horses,  a  considerable  amount  is 
obtained  in  the  more  or  less  succulent  food  eaten.  The  amount  of 
water  required  is  influenced  by  a  number  of  factors,  including  the 

170 


26 

season  of  the  year,  temperature  of  the  surrounding  air,  character  of 
the  feed,  the  individual  peculiarities  of  the  horse,  the  amount  and 
character  of  the  work  performed,  and  probably  others.  The  amount 
of  water  needed  increases  with  the  temperature  and  with  the  amount 
of  work  performed,  since  it  is  ver}^  evident  that  both  of  these  factors 
increase  the  amount  which  is  given  off  from  the  body  in  the  form  of 
perspiration.  Muscular  work  also  increases  the  amount  of  water 
vapor  excreted  in  the  breath. 

It  has  been  found  that  less  water  is  required  when  the  ration  con- 
sists largel}^  of  concentrated  feed  than  when  large  amounts  of  coarse 
fodder  are  consumed,  and  it  is  a  matter  of  common  observation  that 
less  water  is  consumed  when  green,  succulent  feeds  form  a  consider- 
able part  of  the  ration  than  when  it  consists  of  dry  feed.  That  the 
amount. of  water  taken,  even  in  dry  feed,  may  be  considerable  is  shown 
by  the  fact  that  a  ration  of  12  pounds  of  oats  and  15  pounds  of  hay 
furnishes  some  4  pounds  of  water.  A  succulent  ration  would  furnish 
much  more. 

In  general,  a  horse  will  drink  from  50  pounds  or  less  to  65  pounds 
per  day,  though  under  the  influence  of  warm  weather  or  hard  work 
the  amount  may  range  from  85  to  110  pounds  or  over.  In  some 
experiments  in  the  British  army  it  was  found  that  when  allowed  to 
choose,  horses  drank  about  one-fourth  of  their  daily  allowance  in  the 
morning  and  not  far  from  three-eighths  at  noon  and  about  the  same 
proportion  at  night. 

In  connection  with  a  number  of  the  tests  at  the  experiment  stations 
in  the  United  States  the  amount  of  water  consumed  has  been  recorded. 
At  the  New  Hampshire  Station,  on  a  ration  of  different  grain  mixtures, 
with  timothy  ha}^  and  corn  fodder,  the  quantity  of  water  varied  from 
71  to  90  pounds  of  water  per  head  per  day,  both  the  ration  consumed 
and  the  amount  of  work  performed  influencing'  the  quantit}'  of  water 
drunk,  although  the  individuality  of  the  horse  had  the  most  marked 
effect.  At  the  Utab  Station  it  was  found  that  larger  amounts  were 
consumed  on  alfalfa  hay  with  oats  than  on  timothj"  hay,  the  greater 
consumption  of  water  on  the  former  ration  inducing  a  greater  elimi- 
nation by  the  kidne3^s;  but  so  far  as  could  be  observed  this  was  not 
attended  by  any  bad  results,  nor  was  it  found  inconvenient. 

A  pair  of  mules,  at  the  Oklahoma  Station,  during  the  hot  summer 
weather,  drank  113  pounds  of  water  per  head  dailj^,  and  on  one  day  175 
pounds.  In  another  test,  at  moderate  work,  the  amount  recorded  was 
107  pounds.  In  these  tests  the  grain  ration  consisted  of  Kafir  corn, 
maize,  oats,  and  bran. 

The  proper  time  to  water  horses  is  a  matter  concerning  which 
opinions  differ.  Many  feeders  believe  that  thc}^  sliould  be  watered 
before  feeding,  Avhile  others  are  equally  certain  that  feeding  should 
precede  watering.     Some  extended  experiments  have  been  recently 


27 

made  in  Europe  which  have  led  to  definite  conclusions,  and  seem  to 
have  reached  the  truth  in  the  matter. 

The  rations  fed  consisted  of  different  mixtures  of  corn,  oats,  hay, 
and  straw,  and  a  number  of  experiments  were  made  in  which  the  only 
condition  which  varied  was  the  time  of  watering'.  In  some  of  the 
tests  the  horses  drank  befoi'e  and  in  some  after  eating,  and  in  others 
after  the  grain  portion  of  the  ration  was  eaten,  but  before  the  hay. 

So  far  as  was  observed  the  time  of  drinking  had  no  effect  on  the 
digestibility  of  a  ration  of  grain  and  hay.  When  hay  only  was  fed 
there  seemed  to  be  a  slight  advantage  in  watering  before  feeding. 
The  general  conclusion  was  drawn  that  horses  may  be  watered  before, 
during,  or  after  meals  without  interfering  with  the  digestion  and 
absorption  of  food.  All  these  methods  of  watering  are  equally  good 
for  the  horse,  and  each  of  them  may  be  employed  according  to  circum- 
stances. It  is  obvious  that  certain  circumstances  may  make  it  neces- 
sary to  adopt  one  or  the  other  method.  For  instance,  after  severe  loss 
of  water,  such  as  occurs  in  consequence  of  long-continued,  severe 
exertion,  the  animal  should  always  be  allowed  to  drink  before  he  is 
fed,  as  otherwise  he  will  not  feed  well. 

In  this  connection  it  is  worth  noting  that  many  American  farmers 
believe  that  watering  before  feeding  is  best.  Although  all  methods 
of  watering  seemed  in  these  tests  to  be  equally  good  for  the  horse,  it 
is  not  desirable  to  change  unnecessarily  from  one  method  to  another. 
Animals,  or  at  least  some  of  them,  appear  to  be  not  altogether  indiffer- 
ent to  such  a  change.  In  the  experiments  referred  to  above  it  was 
found  that  whenever  a  change  was  made  from  the  plan  of  watering 
after  feeding  to  that  of  watering  before,  the  appetite  fell  off  for  some 
days;  not  that  the  horses  did  not  consume  the  whole  of  the  food  given 
to  them,  but  for  some  days  together  they  did  not  eat  with  the  same 
avidity  as  before,  and  took  a  longer  time  to  consume  their  rations 
completely.  A  similar  effect  was  not  observed  when  the  change  was 
from  watering  before  to  watering  after  feeding,  or  from  watering 
after  to  watering  during  meals,  or  when  the  change  was  in  the  oppo- 
site direction  to  the  last.  It  seems  best,  therefore,  to  avoid  sudden 
and  unnecessary  changes  in  the  method  of  watering. 

DIGESTIBILITY  OF  FEEDING  STUFFS. 

In  the  preceding  pages  reference  has  been  made  to  the  composition 
of  different  feeding  stuffs  and  to  tests  of  the  comparative  value  of 
different  concentrated  feeds  and  coarse  fodders.  The  real  value  of 
any  feeding  stuff  is  determined,  not  alone  by  its  composition,  but  also 
by  its  digestibility;  that  is,  by  the  amount  of  material  which  it  gives 
up  to  the  body  in  its  passage  through  the  digestive  tract.  It  is  evi- 
dent that  if  two  feeding  stuffs  have  practically  the  same  composition, 
but  one  gives  up  more  material  to  the  body  than  the  other — that  is,  is 

170 


28 

more  thoroughly  digested — it  must  actually  be  more  valuable  than  the 
other  material.  The  bulk  of  the  substance  of  almost  all  feeding  stuffs 
is  insoluble  when  eaten.  Only  material  in  solution  can  pass  through 
the  walls  of  the  stomach  and  intestines  into  the  circulation  and  be 
utilized  by  the  body,  therefore  digestibility  consists  chiefly  in  render- 
ing insoluble  materials  soluble.  This  is  effected  by  the  aid  of  digest- 
ive ferments  and  also  by  bacteria. 

Digestion  experiments  are  frequently  made  to  learn  how  thoroughly 
a  given  feeding  stuff  or  ration  is  assimilated.  The  usual  method  is  to 
feed  the  material  under  consideration  for  a  longer  or  shorter  time,  the 
amount  and  composition  being  determined.  From  the  total  nutrients 
consumed,  the  amounts  excreted  undigested  in  the  feces  are  deducted, 
showing  the  amount  of  each  retained  in  the  body.  It  is  the  usual  cus- 
tom to  express  the  amounts  digested  in  percentages,  the  results  thus 
obtained  being  termed  coefficients  of  digestibility. 

The  digestibility^  of  a  number  of  different  feeding  stuffs  has  been 
tested  with  horses  in  this  country  and  in  Europe,  although  the  number 
of  such  experiments  is  much  smaller  than  in  the  case  of  cattle  and 
sheep.  The  most  extended  series  of  American  experiments  with 
horses  was  carried  on  at  the  Maryland  Experiment  Station. 

The  average  results  of  the  available  digestion  experiments  with 
horses  were  used  to  compute  the  digestible  nutrients  furnished  per  100 
pounds  b}^  the  different  feeding  stuffs  included  in  the  table  on  page  10. 

It  has  been  found  that  in  the  majority  of  the  feeding  stuffs  tested 
the  percentage  of  protein  digested  is  fairly  high,  being  greater  in 
grains  and  seeds  than  in  hay  and  grasses,  and  least  in  the  case  of  timothy 
hay  and  spelt  straw. 

Generally  speaking,  the  values  obtained  for  the  digestibility  of  fat 
are  rather  low,  the  fat  of  oats  being  most  digestible  and  that  of  peas 
least  digestible.  There  are  reasons  connected  with  the  analj^tical 
methods  commonly  followed  which  render  the  results  obtained  with 
fat  not  altogether  satisfactory. 

Nitrogen-free  extract  is  quite  thoroughl}^  digested  by  horses,  the 
values  ranging,  in  a  number  of  experiments,  from  100  per  cent  in  the 
case  of  molasses  to  17.9  per  cent  in  the  case  of  spelt  straw.  The  prin- 
cipal sources  of  nitrogen-free  extract  in  the  ration  are  the  cereal  grains 
and  their  by-products,  and  it  is  interesting  to  note  that  the  coefficients 
of  digestibility  of  nitrogen-free  extract  of  these  materials  is  high.  In 
the  majority  of  feeding  stuff's  the  crude  fiber  is  not  ver}^  thoroughl}" 
digested,  the  coefficients  of  digestibility  being  on  an  average  less  than 
50  per  cent. 

COMPARATIVE  DIGESTIBILITY  BY  HOBSES  AND  RUMINANTS. 

In  computing  the  digestible  nutrients  furnished  by  different  feeding 
stuffs,  it  has  been  a  common  custom  to  use  availa])le  data  ol)tained  from 
digestion    experiments   with    farm    atiimals   without    distinguishing 

170 


29 

between  ruminants,  like  the  cow,  sheep,  etc.,  and  nonruminants,  like 
the  horse,  although  differences  had  been  pointed  out  by  a  number  of 
observers.  Averaging-  the  results  of  a  considerable  number  of  tests, 
it  appears  that  ruminants  digest  26.9  per  cent  more  protein,  5.4  per 
cent  more  fat,  16.7  per  cent  more  nitrogen-free  extract,  and  4  per 
cent  more  crude  fiber  from  timothy  hay  than  horses.  In  the  case  of 
oats,  the  amounts  of  protein  digested  were  practically  the  same,  but 
the  ruminants  surpassed  the  horses  by  12.8  per  cent  for  the  fat  and 
0.5  per  cent  each  for  the  nitrogen-free  extract  and  crude  fiber.  Sim- 
ilar results  were  obtained  with  other  coarse  fodders  and  concentrated 
feeds.  Considering  all  the  available  experiments  bearing  on  this  sub- 
ject, it  seems  fair  to  conclude  that  in  general  ruminants  digest  a  larger 
percentage  of  fat,  carbohydrates,  and  crude  fiber  than  horses,  the 
differences  being  most  marked  in  the  case  of  the  crude  fiber.  These 
results  are  in  accord  with  what  might  be  expected  from  differences  in 
the  digestive  organs  of  the  different  classes  of  animals.  It  is  well 
known  that  fineness  of  division  is  an  important  factor  in  considering 
the  thoroughness  of  digestion.  The  length  of  time  any  given  food 
material  remains  in  the  digestive  tract  is  also  important.  The  rumi- 
nants have  an  opportunity  to  chew  their  food  more  thoroughly  than 
horses  and  retain  it  longer  in  the  digestive  tract.  It  is  said  that  on 
an  average  horses  retain  their  food  4  days  or  less;  cattle  3  or  4  to  7 
or  8  days;  sheep  or  goats  from  3  or  4  days  with  ordinary  rations  to  7 
or  8  da3^s  when  straw  is  eaten.  That  the  food  is  actually  more  finely 
divided  b}'  ruminants  in  chewing  and  digesting  is  indicated  by  the 
mechanical  condition  of  the  manure,  that  from  horses  containing  an 
abundance  of  fairly  large  fragments  of  hay  and  other  coarse  fodders, 
etc.,  while  the  manure  of  cattle  commonly  contains  undigested  residue 
in  a  finer  state  of  division.  In  the  case  of  sheep  the  manure  contains 
the  undigested  residue  in  still  smaller  fragments.  It  is  perhaps  gener- 
ally believed  that  crude  fiber  is  chiefly  digested  by  the  action  of  bac- 
teria in  the  intestine,  and  it  is  obvious  that  the  longer  materials  remain 
in  the  intestine  the  greater  the  opportunity  for  the  action  of  such 
micro-organisms. 

The  fact  that,  other  things  being  equal,  horses  digest  their  feed  less 
thoroughly  than  cattle,  i.  e.,  retain  less  nutritive  material  from  any 
given  ration  when  it  passes  through  the  digestive  tract,  has  been  long 
recognized.  For  this  reason  horsernanure  is  richer  than  manure  from 
cattle  on  the  same  ration.  In  other  words,  the  horse  manure  contains 
a  larger  proportion  of  the  ration  than  cow  manure,  and  hence,  more 
of  the  nitrogen  and  mineral  matter,  especially  phosphoric  acid  and 
potash,  originally  present  in  the  feed. 

The  value  of  the  manure  produced  by  horses  was  studied  by  the 
Pennsylvania  Station.  Observations  made  with  a  number  of  horses 
indicate  that  a  horse  produces  annually  about  12,700  pounds  of  fresh 

170 


manure,  not  including  the  amount  dropped  while  at  work.  This  quan- 
tity, which  would  be  worth  about  ^13.50  as  fertilizer,  would  require 
the  use  of  about  2,500  pounds  of  straw  for  bedding.  According  to 
the  author's  calculations  a  ton  of  wheat  straw  economically  used  for 
bedding  horses  may  result  in  6  tons  of  fresh  manure,  although  in  gen- 
eral practice  the  amount  is  not  likely  to  exceed  5  tons  and  may  be 
much  less  if  few  animals  are  kept  or  the  manure  is  infrequently 
removed. 

RATIONS  ACTUALLY  FED  AND  FEEDING  STANDARDS. 

The  amount  of  the  different  feeding  stuffs  required  and  hence  the 
quantity  of  nutrients  supplied  to  horses  may  be  learned  by  observa- 
tion or  experiment  or  a  combination  of  the  two  methods.  Doubtless 
all  practical  horse  feeders  supply  rations  which  they  believe  are  suited 
to  their  horses'  needs,  and  in  stables  where  horses  are  fed  in  any  con- 
siderable number  economy  demands  that  the  amount  fed  shall  be  fixed 
and  not  vary  according  to  the  whims  of  the  feeder.  When  the  feed- 
ing stuffs  used  are  weighed  and  the  condition  of  the  horses  is  noted,  a 
feeding  experiment  results.  Using  average  values  obtained  from 
many  more  or  less  complicated  feeding  experiments  and  other  investi- 
gations, so-called  feeding  standards  have  been  devised  which  are 
designed  to  show  the  amount  of  protein,  fat,  and  carboh3^drate£ 
required  per  day  for  various  conditions  of  work  and  rest.  For  the 
sake  of  uniformity,  the  standards  arc  usually  calculated  on  the  basis  of 
1,000  pounds  live  weight.  They  often  show  in  addition  the  nutritive 
ratio;  that  is,  the  ratio  of  protein  to  the  sum  of  the  carbohydrates 
and  2.25  times  the  fat.  It  is  also  possible  to  express  the  feeding  stand- 
ards in  terms  of  protein  and  energy,  since  the  functions  of  food,  as 
previously  stated,  are  to  build  and  repair  tissue  and  suppl}^  energy, 
protein  alone  serving  for  the  former  purpose,  while  all  the  nutrients 
^deld  energy.  The  best  known  feeding  standards  for  horses  and  other 
farm  animals  are  those  computed  by  Wolff  and  revised  by  Lehmann. 

Very  frequently  so-called  standards  for  horses  have  been  proposed 
which  have  shown  the  quantities  of  feeding  stuffs  required;  for  in- 
stance, the  pounds  of  oats  and  ha}^  needed  per  da}^  per  1,000  pounds 
live  weight.  Such  standards,  or  more  properly  standard  rations,  have 
been  aVlopted  in  many  countries  for  army  horses,  and  in  other  cases 
where  large  numbers  of  horses  are  fed  under  uniform  conditions.  The 
digestible  nutrients  furnished  by  such  standard  rations  can  be  calcu- 
lated by  the  aid  of  figures  showing  the  average  composition  and  diges- 
tibility of  the  feeding  stuffs. 

The  table  following  shows  the  amount  of  nutrients  and  energy  fur 
nished  per  1,000  pounds  live  weight  by  rations  supplied  the  IT.  S. 
Army  horses,  by  those  fed  to  a  number  of  farm  horses  at  the  stations, 

170 


31 

and  work  horses  employed  by  packing  houses,  express  companies,  and 
other  companies,  and  also  the  average  nutritive  value  of  a  considerable 
number  of  such  rations  fed  in  different  parts  of  the  United  States,  as 
well  as  the  commonly  accepted  feeding  standards.  The  amount  of 
digestible  nutrients  furnished  by  the  rations  is  also  included,  such 
data  having  been  calculated  by  the  aid  of  figures  recorded  elsewhere 
(see  page  10). 

Table  2.-— Rations  <t.cinally  fed  to  horses  and  digestible  nutrients  and  energy  in  rations 
calculated  to  basis  of  1,000  pounds  live  weight. 


oi 
o 

"c 

"5) 

"S 

Rations 
actually  fed. 

Nutrients  in  ration  per 
1,000     pounds     live 
weight. 

Digestible  nutrients  in 
ration    per    1,000 
pounds  live  weight. 

3 
1 

Kind  of  horses. 

a 
B 
S 

Em 

(a 

0) 

(V 

tC 
0) 

■a 
p 

5 

a 
% 

S 
a, 

2« 

U  OP 

a) 

3 
u 

n 

a 

ARMY    HORSES. 

United  States: 

Cavalry 

Lbs. 
1,0,50 

1,125 

1,025 

}l,200 
1,050 

Pounds. 

fOats,  12 

\Hav,14 

lOats,  12 

\Hay,14 

JOats,  9 

tHay,14 

1 

(Alfalfa,  21.25.. 

IStraw,  3.2 

jOats,  10 

lHay,12 

Lbs. 
1  2.14 

I  2.00 

I  1.84 

}-« 

1  2.06 

X6.S. 
0.90 

.84 

.78 

.18 
.76 

Lbs. 
12.  82 

11.9*; 

11.39 

5.87 
10.42 

Lbs. 
4.95 

4. 62 

4.80 

2.34 
3.87 

Lbs. 
1.25 

1.16 

1.00 

1.76 
1.40 

Lbs. 
0.57 

.53 

.48 

.05 
.40 

Lbs. 
8.00 

7.48 

6.88 

3.68 
6.97 

Lbs. 
1  97 

Calo- 
ries. 
95  5fin 

1  84 '21  750 

1  94  9n  95in 

HORSES  WITH  LIGHT 
WORK. 

Driving   horse,    Wyo- 
ming Station. 

.92 
1.44 

11,8.55 
19,935 

2.22 

.47 

8.15 

3.10 

1.58 

.22 

5.27 

1.18 

15,895 

1,400 
1,  350 

(Groundgraiii, 
\    9.38. 

|Hay,18 

(Oats,  4 

lHay,15 

Fire  company  horses: 
Boston,  Mass 

Chicago,  111 

I  1.65 
1  1.00 

.68 
.43 

9.57 
6.77 

4.57 
3.50 

.87 
.42 

.41 
.24 

6.14 
3.70 

1.73 
1.45 

18,000 
11,365 

Average  of  6,  in- 
cluding above. 

1.35 

.56 

7.95 

3.20 

.78 

.35 

4.99 

1.26 

14  555 

1.57 

.54 

8.00 

3.18 

.99 

.32 

5.06 

1.24 

14  890 

for  light  work. 

|l,400 

1,325 
1,325 

fCorn,  4.67 

Oats,  5.33 

•  Bran,  0.83 

Corn  meal, 4. 16 

Hay,  15 

(Corn, 2  

lOats,  19 

1  Bran,  1.5 

[Hay,  9.5 

(Corn,  12 

■^Oats,  5.25 

Hav,  20 

■ 

HOR.SES      WITH     MOD- 
ERATE WORK. 

Kxpress  horses: 

Richmond,      Vn., 
summer. 

Jersey  City,  N.J... 
Boston ,  Mass 

•  1.79 

i  2.45 
i  2.38 

.78 

1.03 
1.04 

11.78 

13. 45 
14.96 

3.64 

3.57 
5.32 

.97 

1.66 
1.28 

.45 

.67 

8.19 

9.37 
9.75 

1.46 

1.32 
2. 12 

21,650 

25, 800 
27, 000 

Average  of  4,  in- 
cluding above. 

2.15 

.93 

13. 27 

4.13 

1.26 

.55 

9.06 

1.62 

24  55C 

170 


32 

Table  2. — Rations  actually  fed  to  horses  and  digestible  nutrients  and  energy  in  rations 
calculated  to  basis  of  1,000  pounds  live  weight — Continued. 


Kind  of  horses. 


Ration.8 
actually  fed. 


Nutrients  in  ration  per 
1,000  pounds  live 
weight. 


Digestible  nutrients  in 
ration  per  1,000 
pounds  live  weight. 


HORSES  WITH  MOD- 
ERATE WORK — con- 
tinued. 

Cab  horses: 

Washington,  D.  C. 

San  Francisco,  Cal. 

Average  of  4,  in- 
cluding above. 

Farm  horses: 

Wyoming  Station . . 

New  Hampshire 
Station. 


New  Jersey  S  tation 


Massachusetts  Sta- 
tion. 


Utah  Station 


Lbs.  Pounds. 

fOats,  10... 
1,200,-^  Corn,  5 

IHay,  23... 


Lbs, 
2.56 


1  oka' /Oats,  8.. 
l'^50|Hay,16. 


1,000 


}■•■ 


Do. 


Average  of  41,  in- 
cluding above. 

General  average 
for  moderate 
work. 


Farm  mules,  Virginia 
Station. 


Average  of  6,  in- 
cluding above. 

HORSES  WITH  SEVERE 
WORK. 

Truck  and  draft  horses: 
Chicago,  111.,  daily 

ration. 
South     Omaha, 

Nebr. 

Average  of  5,  in- 
cluding above. 

170 


>1, 310 


h,500 
!■!,  500 


Lbs. 
1.12 

.69 


/Alfalfa,  13.76. 
\Straw,  2.26... 

I  Bran,  2 
Corn,  6 
Gluten  meal,  6 
Hav,  10 

fHav,  6 

Bran  2^- 

ICorn,  4f 

Dried  brewers' 
I    grain,  8|. 

Hay,  18 

\VlH'atbran,2. 
Il'rovender,  6= 
)  crushed 
corn,  2.73; 
[    oats,  3.27. 

I  Alfalfa    hay, 
25. 
Bran      and 

shorts  (1:1), 

10. 
Timothy  hay, 

22.8. 
Bran     and 

shorts  (1:1), 

10. 


il.  85 
2.37 

i  3.21 


2.46 


fHay,  15.2.... 
ICorn,  10.5.... 
I  Corn  silage, 
I     10.5. 


fOats,  7.6 . 
IHay,  20.. 
)  Oats,  15.. 
\Hay,  12.. 


1.65 


Lbs 
16. 50 

8.87 


Lbs 
6.43 


Lbs. 

1.28 

.70 


Lbs 
0.63 


Lbs. 
10.42 


Lbs 
2.60 


4.30 


7.33 


.14 
.93 


6.27 
10.49 


1.3 
1.69 


4.03 

7.47 


.75 


.78 


.58 
.70 


7.04 


1.11 


6.56 


4.05 


1.57 
1.49 


8.09 
8.09 


11.64 


8.99 
9.67 


4.34 
3.27 


.64 
1.04 


5.11 
6.23 


33 


Tahlk  2. — Rations  actnalhj  fed  to  horses  and  digestible  nutrieids  and  energtj  in  ratipus 
calculated  to  basis  of  1,000  pounds  live  weight — Continued. 


O 

Rations 
actually  fed. 

Nutrients  in  ration  per 
1,000     pounds     live 
weight. 

Digestible  nutrients  in 
ration     per     1,000 
pounds  live  weight. 

1 

Kind  of  horses. 

"3 
c 

M 

Co' 
be'-' 

U4 

0) 

•a 

3 

'S 
o 

0- 

-.J 

0) 

a 

^0 
taoC 

a 

FEEDING       STANDARDS 
AND     AVERAGE      RA- 
TIONS. 

Light     worlc,     Wolff- 

Lbs. 

Pounds. 

Lbs. 

Lbs. 

Lbs. 

Lbs. 

Lb.'<. 
1.5 

•2.0 

2.5 

2. 14 

1.95 

1.60 

1.10 
1.30 

1.  .58 
.99 

1.06 

1.57 

1.49 

.69 

1.12 

Lbs. 
.40 

.60 

.80 

.52 

.44 

.40 

.22 
.32 

.49 

.40 
.42 
.39 

.49 

LM. 
9 

Lbs. 

5 

C'alo 
ries. 
22,150 

Lehmann. 
ISIedium  work,  Wolff- 

11.0 
13.3 
11.15 

9.93 

12. 14 

"11.0      . 
"11,  n 

26  700 

Lehmann. 
Heavy    work,    Wolff- 

32,7-50 
26,900 

23, 950 

•'7  200 

Lehmann. 
Maintenance,  moder- 

ate  work,  original, 
Grandeau. 
Maintenance,  moder- 

ate work,  modified, 
Grandeau. 
Paris  Bus  Co.,  horses. 

Lawes    &    Gilbert's 
computation. 

Ordinary  work,  Lava- 
lard. 

Severe  work,  Lavalard 

AMERICAN    EXPERI- 
MENTS. 

Horses    with    light 
work: 
Driving  horses 

''''  510 

22,880 

5.27 
5.06 

7.33 

8.09 
8.09 
7.95 

6.94 

1.18 

General  average 

1.2414,890 

1.72  20,860 
1  62  2''  760 

Horses  with  moderate 
work: 
Express  and   cab 

horses. 
Farm  horses 

General  average 

1.63  22,710 
1.60  90  fiV.'S 

Mules  with  moderate 

work:  Farm  mules. 
Horses     with     severe 

1.35 

19,560 

work:    Truck     and 
draft  horses. 

"This  value  represents  total  carbohydrates  plus  2.25  times  the  fat. 

As  will  be  seen,  the  average  values  for  the  protein  and  energ}^  in 
the  rations  of  the  horses  performing  light  work  are  considerably  less 
than  similar  values  for  horses  performing  moderate  work.  The  data 
for  the  former  group  is  much  more  limited  than  for  the  latter,  but  the 
relation  is  in  accord  with  the  commonly  accepted  theories.  The  farm 
mules  consumed  a  ration  furnishing  less  protein  and  practically  the 
same  amount  of  energy  as  horses  performing  similar  work,  though  the 
tests  with  mules  are  too  few  for  general  deductions.  The  rations  of 
the  truck  and  draft  horses  performing  severe  muscular  work  furnished 
less  protein  and  energy  on  an  average  than  the  rations  of  the  horses 
25352— No.  170—03 3 


34 

with  moderate  work.  This  is  not  in  accord  with  commonly  accepted 
theories,  for  it  is  generally  conceded  that  horses  at  severe  work 
require  larger  rations  than  those  at  moderate  work.  The  discrep- 
ancy may  be  explained  in  part  perhaps  by  the  fact  that  the  data 
for  the  group  performing  severe  work  is  much  less  extended  than 
that  for  the  group  performing  moderate  work.  There  is  ever}^  reason 
to  suppose  that  the  truck  and  draft  horses  received  rations  sufficient 
for  their  needs,  as  the  firms  owning  them  are  known  to  make  the 
efltort  to  maintain  their  horses  in  good  condition.  Such  truck  and 
draft  animals  are  often  emplo5^ed  at  work  which  is  performed  at  a  slow 
pace,  and  undoubtedly  this  has  a  bearing  on  the  fact  that  they  were 
able  to  perform  a  large  amount  of  work  on  a  comparativel}^  small 
ration,  as  the  speed  at  which  work  is  performed  has  a  marked  effect 
upon  the  food  requirements. 

The  average  values,  representing  the  amounts  which  were  fed  to 
American  horses  performing  light,  moderate,  and  severe  work,  differ 
somewhat  from  the  commonlj^  accepted  feeding  standards.  It  would 
be  going  too  far  to  propose  the  adoption  of  these  average  values  as 
standards  in  the  place  of  those  which  have  been  commonly  accepted. 
It  is  undoubtedly  true  that  a  feeding  standard  should  be  based  on  other 
data  than  the  results  of  feeding  experiments;  however,  in  so  far  as  the 
results  represent  the  average  practice  of  successful  feeders  they  are 
worthy  of  consideration,  and  certainly  emphasize  the  importance  of 
undertaking  investigations  with  a  view  to  revising  the  standards.  It 
should  be  remembered  that  the  amounts  of  digestible  nutrients  in  the 
rations  actually  fed  were  calculated  with  the  aid  of  coefficients  of 
digestibility  obtained  with  horses  and  are,  therefore,  considerably 
lower  than  would  be  the  case  if  average  values  obtained  with  ruini- 
nants  had  been  used,  a  method  of  calculation  which  has  been  often 
followed  in  the  past,  but  which  does  not  seem  desirable. 

The  number  of  feeding  stuffs  used  in  making  up  the  rations  fed  was 
not  found  to  be  large,  oats  and  corn  being  the  common  grains,  and 
ha}",  usually  timothy,  the  common  coarse  fodder.  The  amounts  of 
nutrients  and  energy  in  the  different  rations  of  the  horses  making  up 
the  different  groups  varied  within  rather  wide  limits,  which  is  not  sur- 
prising when  it  is  remembered  tliat  the  horses  were  fed  under  many 
different  conditions  and  by  a  large  number  of  feeders  whose  opinions 
regarding  what  constituted  a  proper  ration  naturallv  differed. 

The  rations  given  in  Table  2  and  those  used  in  calculating  the  aver- 
ages there  included  were  believed  to  be  sufficient  for  the  horses'  needs 
either  because  the  animals  maintained  a  practically  constant  weight,  as 
in  the  case  of  the  horses  fed  at  the  experiment  stations,  or  because  the 
rations  had  stood  the  practical  test  of  usage  at  the  hands  of  express 
companies,  cab  companies,  etc.  Several  additional  rations  follow, 
which   may  perhaps   serve  as  a  guide  in  determining   the  kind  and 

170 


35 

amount  of  feeds  which  sliould  be  given  to  work  horses  under  different 
conditions. 

The  New  Hampshire  Station  found  that  the  following  rations  were 
moderate  in  cost  and  sufficient  in  amount  for  farm  horses  weighing 
between  1,200  and  1,300  pounds: 

Ration  No.  1.  Timothy  hay  10  pounds,  ])ran  2  pounds,  corn  6  pounds,  and  gluten 
feed  6  pounds. 

Ration  No.  2.  Timothy  hay  10  pounds,  corn  S  pounds,  and  bran  7  pounds. 
Ration  No.  3.  Timothy  hay  10  ])ounds,  corn  8  pounds,  and  linseed  meal  4  pounds. 

As  shown  by  correspondence  a  favorite  ration  with  feeders  in  differ- 
ent cities  for  truck  horses  weighing  some  1,500  pounds  is  made  up  of 
15  to  20  pounds  of  oats  and  12  to  20  pounds  of  hay.  Some  feeders 
prefer  corn  and  oats  in  equal  parts  instead  of  oats. 

In  Table  2  the  ration  for  arm}-  horses  w^eighing  about  1,100  pounds 
is  given  as  oats  12  pounds  and  ha}'  11  pounds.  According  to  the  army 
regulations  a  like  amount  of  corn  or  barley  may  be  supplied  in  the 
place  of  oats. 

The  Iowa  Station  work  horses,  weighing  1,200  pounds,  according  to 
a  recent  publication,  are  fed  12  pounds  of  hay  and  12  pounds  of  grain 
(oats,  corn,  and  bran  3:2:1)  per  head  daily.  If  oats  are  high  in  price 
the  amount  of  corn  is  increased,  the  grains  being  mixed  in  the  propor- 
tion of  2:2:1.  Horses  weighing  1,500  to  1,600  pounds  receive  15 
pounds  of  hay  and  15  pounds  of  the  above  grain  mixture.  This,  it  is 
said,  has  been  found  sufficient  to  keep  them  in  good  flesh  during  heavy 
work.  For  ordinary  work  horses  weighing  about  1,300  pounds  a 
ration  of  10  pounds  of  oat  straw  and  15  pounds  of  equal  parts  of  corn 
and  oats  by  weight  is  considered  sufficient.  At  severe  work  the  mix- 
ture should  consist  of  3  parts  of  oats  to  2  of  corn. 

The  California  Station  recommends,  per  1,000  pounds  live  weight, 
the  following  combinations  among  others  as  suited  to  Pacific  coast 
conditions: 

Ration  No.  1.  Alfalfa  hay  12  pounds,  wheat  hay  11  pounds,  and  crushed  barley  7 
pounds. 

Ration  No.  2.  Alfalfa  hay  10  pounds,  barley  hay  12  pounds,  and  cracked  corn  7 
pounds. 

As  a  sample  of  a  ration  containing  molasses  the  following  may  be 
cited  which  has  been  satisfactorily  fed  to  a  large  number  of  draft 
horses  averaging  1,700  pounds  in  weight:  Night  and  morning  a  quart 
of  molasses  diluted  with  3  quarts  of  water  and  thoroughly  mixed  with 
6  pounds  of  cut  hay  of  good  quality,  1.5  quarts  of  corn  meal,  and  2.5 
quarts  of  coarse  bran.  In  addition  the  horses  were  given  5  quarts  of 
dry  oats  in  the  middle  of  the  day  and  11  pounds  of  long  hay  at  night. 

An  English  authority  recommends  the  ration  given  below,  which  is 
interesting  as  an  example  of  the  use  of  roots:  For  work  horses  12 
pounds  of  oats,  15  pounds  of  hay,  and  5  pounds  of  carrots.     A  more 

170 


36 

abundant  ration  suited  to  more  severe  work  is  20  pounds  of  oats,  10 
pounds  of  ba}^  and  3  pounds  of  carrots. 

For  farm  borses  at  light  work  Settegast  recommends  6  to  10  pounds 
oats,  6  to  9  pounds  ba^',  and  3  pounds  straw.  For  medium  work  10 
pounds  oats,  10  pounds  bay,  and  3  pounds  straw.  For  beavy  work  13 
pounds  oats,  12  pounds  ba}',  and  3  pounds  straw. 

A  ration  proposed  b}^  Sidney  for  a  draft  borse  at  beavy  worK  is  of 
interest  because  beans  replaced  some  of  the  grain  ordinarily  fed.  The 
ration  consists  of  13  pounds  oats,  6  pounds  beans,  3  pounds  corn,  and 
15  pounds  chaffed  clover  ha}^ 

The  above  rations  are  not  especially  recomiuended,  but  are  quoted 
as  illustrations  of  the  ways  in  wbicli  feeding  stuffs  can  be  com))ined. 
Each  feeder  should  decide  upon  a  ration  which  makes  the  most  economi- 
cal use  of  the  local  feed  supplv,  taking  care  that  it  furnishes  in  reason- 
able combination  nutritive  material  sufficient  for  the  amount  of  work 
required. 

METHOD  OF  CALCULATING  RATIONS. 

The  feeding  value  of  anv  ration  may  be  readily  calculated  and  com- 
pared with  the  standards.  Suppose  a  horse  at  moderate  work  and 
weighing  1,200  pounds  is  fed  11  pounds  of  oats  and  10  pounds  of  tim- 
othy hay  daily.  The  Wolff-Lehman n  feeding  standard  for  horses  at 
moderate  work  calls  for  1.8  pounds  of  protein  and  26,700  calories  per 
thousand  pounds  live  weight.  A  borse  weighing  1,200  pounds  would 
therefore  require  1.2  times  as  much,  or  2.2  pounds  protein  and  32,000 
calories.  Oats  contain  9.39  pounds  of  digestible  protein  and  122,100 
calories  per  hundred  pounds.  Eleven  pounds  would  therefore  furnish 
1.08  pounds  of  protein  (9.39  X  0.11  =  1.03),  and  13,431  calories  (122,100X 
0.11  =  13,-131).  Timoth}'  haj^  furnishes  1.25  pounds  protein  and  69,850 
calories  per  hundred  pounds.  Ten  pounds  would  therefore  furnish 
0.13  pound  protein  (1.25x0.10  =  0.13)  and  6,985  calories  (69,850X 
0.10  =  6,985).  The  sum  of  tbe  nutrients  furnished  by  11  pounds  of 
oats  and  10  pounds  of  hay  would  tbereforc  be  1.16  pounds  protein  and 
20,415  calories,  or  1.04  pounds  protein  and  11,585  calories  less  than 
the  standard  calls  for.  This  may  be  made  up  ))y  adding  more  oats, 
bay,  or  other  feeding  stuff.  Tbe  amount  of  oats  required  to  furnish 
the  necessary  protein  may  be  learned  from  the  proportion  100:9.39:: 
a?:  1.04;  or,  in  other  words,  b}^  dividing  104  by  9.39,  wbich  gives 
11.07.  This  quantity  of  oats  would  also  furnish  13,517  calories,  mak- 
ing the  total  protein  of  tbe  ration  2.2  pounds  and  the  total  fuel  value 
33,932  calories.  Tbe  fuel  value  of  tbe  ration  is  in  excess  of  the  stand- 
ard, though  tbe  agreement  is  close  enough  for  all  practical  purposes. 

It  will  be  remembered  that  it  is  not  necessary  tbat  the  amounts 
furnished  in  a  ration  shall  exactly  e<iual  thos(^  called  for  by  the 
standard,  but  rather  tbat  tbey  approximate  them,  being  greater  rather 
no 


b7 

than  less  through  a  long-  period.  Rations  which  will  furnish  the 
amounts  called  for  by  other  feeding  standards,  or  by  the  average 
values  deduced  from  American  rations,  can,  of  course,  be  calculated 
in  the  same  way.  As  will  be  noted,  the  amount  of  feeding  stuffs 
necessar}^  to  provide  nutrients  equal  to  the  amount  called  for  by  the 
Wolff  standard  for  a  horse  at  moderate  work  is  large  compared  with 
the  amounts  f)rdinarily  used  in  this  country. 

MUSCULAR   WORK   AND    ITS   EFFECT  ON   FOOD  REQUIREMENTS. 

It  is  commonly  said  that  the  amount  of  food  required  l)}^  horses  is 
proportionate  to  their  weight;  it  being  self-evident  that  a  large  horse 
would  require  more  material  than  a  small  horse  to  build  and  repair 
the  body  and  to  carry  on  all  the  vital  processes  which  constitute 
internal  muscular  work.  Investigations  have  shown  that  the  require- 
ments are  more  nearly  proportional  to  the  surface  areas  than  to  the 
body  weight.  Individual  peculiarity  is,  of  course,  a  factor  which 
must  be  reckoned  with,  but  the  general  statement  is  justified.  The 
factor  which  has  the  greatest  influence  on  the  ration  required  is  the 
amount  of  work  performed,  the  ration  increasing  with  the  work. 
When  horses  M'hich  have  been  consuming  a  large  ration  and  perform- 
ing work  are  compelled  to  rest,  even  for  a  few  days,  the  ration  should 
be  diminished. 

In  order  to  study  the  effects  of  work  upon  the  amount  of  food 
required  it  is  necessary  to  have  some  means  of  measuring  and  com- 
paring the  different  kinds  of  work  done. 

MEASURING  MUSCULAR  VORK. 

It  has  been  said  alread}-  that  the  total  work  performed  by  a  norse 
consists  of  internal  and  external  muscular  exertion.  The  former 
includes  the  force  expended  in  the  digesting  of  food,  the  beating  of 
the  heart,  etc.;  the  latter  that  expended  in  moving  the  body,  i.  e.,  in 
the  motion  of  forward  progression,  and  in  drawing  or  carrying  a  load. 
The  latter  factor  is  the  one  of  most  importance  in  considering  the  horse 
as  a  beast  of  burden.  The  amount  of  such  muscular  work  has  been  cal- 
culated or  measured  in  various  ways.  The  methods  of  calculation  are 
often  complex  and  need  not  be  discussed  in  detail. 

According  to  the  classic  experiments  of  James  Watts,  a  horse  can 
exert  a  power  equal  to  33,000  foot-pounds  per  minute,  i.  e.,  in  one  min- 
ute can  exert  a  force  sufficient  to  raise  33,000  pounds  1  foot.  This  value 
has  been  termed  one  horsepower  and  has  been  accepted  as  a  common 
unit  for  the  measurement  of  force.  In  countries  where  the  metric 
system  is  employed  the  more  common  unit  is  the  kilogrammeter. 
This  unit  is  equal  to  7.2  foot-pounds.  According  to  Watts's  values,  a 
horse  working  eight  hours  per  day  would  perform  work  represented 
by  33,000  X  60  X  8  =  15,81:0,000    foot-pounds.     Later  estimates  give 

170 


35 


lower  values.     It  has  been  calculated  that  an  average  horse  will  pro 
duce   onl}'  about  22,000    foot-pounds   per   minute,  which  would  be 
equivalent  to  10,560,000  foot-pounds  in  a  working  day  of  eight  hours. 

According  to  German  experiments,  the  day's  work  of  a  horse  haul- 
ing a  load  eight  hours  on  a  level  road  amounted  to  7,999,800  foot- 
pounds. Working  the  same  length  of  time  with  a  d3^namometer  the 
work  amounted  to  12,996,000  foot-pounds.  Larger  values  have  been 
obtained  in  calculations  representing  the  amount  of  work  performed 
daily  by  army  horses. 

Taking  into  account  the  average  amount  of  muscular  work  expressed 
in  foot-pounds,  the  speed  at  which  work  is  performed,  the  duration  of 
the  work,  and  the  amount  of  work  done  at  a  walk  and  trotting,  the 
total  work  done  per  day  by  French  army  horses  carrying  a  rider 
weighing  175  pounds  without  a  pack,  and  265  pounds  with  a  pack,  and 
200  pounds  with  accouterment  for  maneuvers,  has  been  calculated  to 
be  as  follows: 

Table  3. — Work  performed  by  French  army  horses  per  day. 


Work  per  day. 


ORDINARY   WORK    (RIDER  WITHOUT  PACK). 


Walking. 
Trotting . 


Total 

ROAD   WORK    (rider   WITH   PACK). 


Walking. 
Trotting. 


Total 


MILITARY   MANEUVERS    (RIDER   WITH   LIGHT 
PACK). 

Walking 

Trotting 


Total 


Weight 
carried. 


Pounds. 
176 
176 


265 
265 


198 
198 


Velocity 

per 
second. 


Feet. 
5.446 
9.022 


5. 446 
9.022 


5. 446 
9. 022 


Work  per 
second. 


Foot-lbs. 

958.5 

1,587.9 


1,443.2 
2, 390. 8 


1,078.3 
1,786.4 


Duration 
of  daily 
work. 


Hrs.  mill. 
2  30 
1    30 


1    30 
1    30 


2  00 

3  00 


Amoinit 

of  work  at 

different 

gaits. 


Foot-lbs. 
8, 626, 500 
8, 574, 660 


17,201,160 


7, 793, 280 
12, 910, 320 


20, 703, 600 


7, 762, 760 
19, 293, 120 


27,055,880 


According  to  the  calculation  of  an  English  army  officer,  the  mean 
ratio  of  carrying  power  to  body  weight  is  1:5.757;  that  is  to  sa}^,  it 
takes,  roughly  speaking,  5.75  pounds  of  body  weight  to  cany  1  pound 
on  the  back  during  severe  exertion  (racing  excepted).  The  rule  he 
gives  for  ascertaining  the  canning  power  of  a  horse  is  to  divide  his  body 
weight  by  5.757,  and  if  intended  for  only  moderate  work  to  add  to  the 
product  28  pounds.  It  has  to  be  noted  that  the  observations  on  which 
this  rule  is  based  were  made  upon  military  horses.  It  is  doubtful  if  it 
would  work  out  so  accurately  if  applied  to  all  horses  used  for  the  saddle. 

MUSCULAR  WORK  IN  ITS  RELATION  TO  THE  RATION. 

Many  experiments  have  been  made,  chiefly  in  Eui'opt',  to  determine 
the  exact  relation  Ix'tween  the  amount  of  muscular  work  performed 
and  the  amount  of  the  different  nutrients  re(]uired  per  day.     It  is  the 

170 


39 

opinion  of  many  prominent  investig'ators  that,  provided  a  sufficient 
amount  of  protein  is  supplied  for  ph3\siolo^ical  maintenance,  i.  e.,  to 
replace  the  wear  and  tear  of  body  tissue,  it  is  immaterial  which  of  the 
three  classes  of  nutrients  (protein,  fat,  and  carbohydrates)  furnishes 
the  cnerg3^  necessary  for  external  muscular  work  performed  by  horses. 

A  view  very  commonly  held  to-day  is  much  the  same  and  in  accord 
with  the  above,  viz,  that  provided  an  adequate  quantity  of  protein  and 
energy  are  available  for  maintenance,  it  is  theoretically  immaterial 
which  class  of  nutrients  furnish  the  energy  for  muscular  work, 
although  carbohydrates  and  fat  are  practically  better  suited  for  this 
purpose  than  protein,  since  any  great  excess  of  the  latter  is  costly  and 
ma}'  prove  injurious  to  the  health.  In  this  case  the  term  maintenance 
is  not  used  in  its  strict  ph3^siological  sense,  but  refers  to  a  condition  in 
which  no  appreciable  amount  of  external  muscular  work  is  performed, 
and  in  which,  the  internal  muscular  work  is  fairly  uniform  from  day  to 
day  and  the  body  weight  practically'  constant. 

The  speed  at  which  the  horse  travels,  the  way  in  which  the  load  is 
distributed,  the  external  temperature,  and  other  conditions  evidently 
have  an  effect  upon  the  work  performed,  increased  speed,  increased 
temperature,  and  faulty  distribution  of  the  load  increasing  the  work. 

It  is  commonly  recognized  that  when  work  is  increased  more  feed  is 
required.  Many  experiments  have  shown  that  the  pace  at  which  work 
is  done  also  has  an  effect,  and  in  general  the  greater  the  speed  the 
larger  the  feed  requirement.  Some  of  the  reasons  given  for  the  fact 
that  rapid  work  is  less  economical  than  slow  work  are  the  increased 
action  of  the  heart  when  the  horse  is  trotting  or  galloping;  the  lifting 
of  his  own  weight  at  each  step  only  to  allow  it  to  fall  again,  thus  devel- 
oping heat;  and  the  increase  of  body  temperature  with  exertion  and 
the  loss  of  heat  b}'  the  evaporation  of  water  through  the  skin  and 
lungs. 

A  number  of  investigators  have  studied  the  relation  between  muscular 
work  and  digestibility.  Small  variations  have  been  observed  under 
the  different  experimental  conditions,  the  feed  being  on  an  average  a 
little  less  thoroughly  digested  when  severe  work  was  performed. 
But  on  the  whole  it  seems  fair  to  say  that  from  a  j^ractical  stand- 
point the  diminished  digestibility  due  to  muscular  work  is  not  very 
important. 

A  recent  German  investigator  found  that  the  amount  of  food  required 
was  affected  by  anything  that  disturbed  the  horse.  In  one  experiment 
a  horse  confined  in  a  stable  was  much  disturbed  by  flies  and  conse- 
quently restless.  The  increased  work  in  fighting  the  flies  caused  an 
increase  of  10  per  cent  of  the  carbon  dioxid  excreted.  This  means 
that  more  food  material  was  burned  in  the  bod}^  than  was  the  case 
when  the  horse  was  quiet,  for  the  combustion  of  food  in  the  bod}',  it 
will  be  remembered,  furnishes  the  carbon  dioxid  excreted  in  the 
breath. 

170 


40 

In  addition  to  other  matters,  this  same  investigator  noted  that  the 
body  conformation  had  a  marked  effect  on  the  economical  production 
of  work.  He  found  that  defects  in  external  conformation  and  move- 
ments necessitate  an  increased  amount  of  muscular  exertion.  This 
has  an  important  bearing  upon  the  market  value  of  the  horses.  Too 
low  a  stall  temperature  also  increases  the  amount  of  material  required 
for  maintenance.  In  many  cases  observed  this  increase  was  hardly 
covered  by  2  pounds  of  oats  daily. 

PROPORTION   OF   ENERGY   OF   FOOD    EXPENDED  FOR   INTERNAL 
AND  EXTERNAL.  MUSCULAR  WORK. 

A  horse  converts  38.3  percent  of  the  energy  of  food  into  mechanical 
work.  On  account  of  the  energy  required  for  respiration,  the  beating 
of  the  heart,  etc.,  only  about  34  per  cent  of  the  energy  of  the  food  is 
actually  available  for  external  muscular  work.  The  best,  record  for  a 
steam  engine  is  said  to  be  an  efficiency  per  indicated  horsepower  of 
22.7  per  cent  on  the  basis  of  total  heat  supply.  Per  delivered  horse- 
power the  amount  is  probabl}^  10  per  cent  less.  The  animal  is,  there- 
fore, seen  to  be  a  much  more  efficient  machine  than  the  engine. 

ENERGY  REQUIRED  TO  CHEW  AND  DIGEST  FOOD. 

One  of  the  most  interesting  of  the  lines  of  investigation  followed  in 
an  extended  series  of  experiments,  carried  on  under  the  direction  of 
Professor  Zuntz  at  the  Agricultural  High  School  in  Berlin,  was  the 
determination  of  the  energy  required  to  chew  and  digest  different 
foods.  The  experiments  were  complicated  and  too  extended  to  describe 
here  except  in  very  general  terms.  They  showed  that  the  respiratory 
quotient,  i.  e. ,  the  ratio  of  the  carbon  dioxid  excreted  in  the  breath  to 
the  oxygen  consumed  from  the  air  is  a  very  delicate  index  of  the 
changes  which  take  place  in  the  body.  It  was  found  that  the  internal 
muscular  work  expended  in  chewing,  swallowing,  and  digesting  food 
could  be  determined  by  the  variations  in  the  respiratory  quotient  and 
in  the  amount  of  carbon  dioxid  excreted  when  this  kind  of  work  was 
performed,  as  compared  with  the  amount  when  the  animal  rested. 
Different  feeding  stuffs  modified  the  respiratory  quotient  in  different 
ways,  and  it  was  evident  that  some  required  more  labor  for  diges- 
tion and  assimilation  than  others.  This  is  a  matter  of  considerable 
importance,  for  it  is  evident  that  if  two  feeding  stuffs  of  practically 
the  same  composition  are  digested  with  equal  thoroughness  but  one 
requires  for  digestion  and  assimilation  the  expenditure  of  more 
internal  muscular  work  than  the  other,  it  is  really  less  valuable;  in 
other  words,  the  two  may  contain  the  same  amount  of  digestible 
nutrients,  l)ut  one  causes  the  body  more  labor  to  assimilate  than 
the  other.  On  the  basis  of  Zuntz's  average  figures  of  composition  and 
digestibility,  1  pound  of  hay  furnishes  0.391  pound  of  total  nutri- 

170 


41 

ents,  and  1  pound  of  oats  0.015  pound  of  nutrients.  As  regards 
nutritive  value,  hay  and  oats  are  therefore  commonly'  said  to  be  to 
each  other  as  -100  :  600.  As  shown  b}-  the  experiments  referred  to, 
0.123  pound,  or  20  per  cent  of  the  total  nutritive  material  present 
in  1  pound  of  oats  is  expended  in  the  labor  of  chewing  and  digesting 
them.  In  the  case  of  1  pound  of  hay,  0.102  pound,  or  4:9  per  cent  of 
the  total  nutritive  material,  is  required  for  the  same  purpose.  There- 
fore hay  and  oats  stand  reall}^  in  the  proportion  of  200  :  490.  In  other 
words,  oats  surpass  hay  in  feeding  value  two  and  one-half  times  instead 
of  one-half  time,  as  they  are  ordinarily  assumed  to  do. 

"TRUE  NUTRITIVE  VAI-UE"  OF  FEEDING  STUFFS. 

.  Taking  into  account  the  internal  muscular  work  required  to  chew 
and  digest  foods  and  deducting  this  from  the  digestible  nutrients  pres- 
ent in  the  foods,  what  we  ma}' call  the  "true  nutritive  value"  of  a 
number  of  feeding  stuffs  was  calculated  by  Zuntz  with  special  refer- 
ence to  horses.     The  results  are  shown  in  the  following  table: 

Table  4. — Calculated  "  fitie  nutritive  value"  of  1  jiound  of  different  feeding  stuffs. 


Feeding  stuffs. 

Dry  mat- 
ter. 

Crude 
fiber. 

Total  di- 
gestible 
nutri- 
ents, a 

Labor    expended 
in  chewing  and 
digestion. 

True  nutritive 
value. 

In 
terms  of 
energy. 

In  terms 
of  nutri- 
ents." 

In 
terms  of 
energy. 

In  terms 
of  nutri- 
ents, a 

Meadow  hay  (average  quality) 

Alfalfa  hay  cut  at  beginning 

of  bloom 

Per  cent. 
85 

84 
84 
86 
87 
87 
86 
86 
86 
88 
25 
15 

Pound. 
0.260 

.266 
.302 
.420 
.103 
.017 
.069 
.059 
.157 
.094 
.010 
.016 

Pound. 
0.391 

.453 

.407 
.181 
.615 
.785 
.720 
.087 
.645 
.690 
.226 
.113 

Calories. 
376 

394 

429 
535 
224 
148 
200 
183 
294 
225 
49 
37 

Pound. 
0.209 

.219 
.239 
.297 
.124 
.082 
.111 
.102 
.163 
.125 
.027 
.021 

Calories. 
328 

422 

303 

-209 

883 

1,265 

1,096 

1,054 

867 

1,018 

358 

166 

Pound. 
0.182 

234 

168 

Winter-wheat  straw        

—  116 

Oats  (medium  quality) 

.491 
703 

.609 

Peas 

586 

Air-dry  disembittered  lupines. 

.482 
.565 

Potatoes 

199 

Carrots 

092 

a  Protein,  plus  carbohydrates,  plus  crude  fiber,  plus  fat  multiplied  by  2.4. 

As  will  be  seen,  the  true  nutritive  value  of  straw  is  negative  in  the 
above  table.  In  this  connection  it  was  stated  that  so  long  as  heat 
alone  is  considered,  the  digestible  nutrients  in  straw  should  be  given 
their  full  value  as  shown  by  the  heat  of  combustion.  Providing  the 
labor  of  digesting  a  mixed  ration  does  not  exceed  4.63  pounds,  or 
8,316  calories,  the  digestible  nutrients  in  straw  have  a  positive  value. 
If  the  labor  of  digestion  is  greater  than  this,  an  excess  of  straw 
would  only  increase  the  internal  muscular  work,  so  that  approximately 
a  quarter  of  a  pound  of  nutrients  per  pound  is  of  no  value  for  the 
bod3^ 

25352— No.  170—03 4 


42 

FIXING  RATIONS  ON  THE  BASIS  OF  INTERNA!.  AND  EXTERNAL 

MUSCULAR  WORK. 

It  was  shown  in  connection  with  the  above  tests  that  a  ration  suited 
to  the  performance  of  any  kind  of  work  can  be  calculated  on  the  basis 
of  the  nutritive  material  and  energy  required  for  maintenance  plus 
that  needed  for  the  work  performed,  though  the  method  is  too  involved 
to  discuss  in  detail.  Thus  on  the  basis  of  experiments  and  observa- 
tions it  was  calculated  that  a  horse  weighing  1,100  pounds  requires  for 
maintenance  7.056  pounds  of  true  available  nutrients.  Similar  calcu- 
lations were  made  for  a  horse  working  with  or  without  harness  and 
wagon  on  a  level  and  going  up  or  down  an  incline  at  different  gaits. 

It  was  found  that  the  amount  of  total  nutrients  required  increases 
with  the  increased  speed;  furthermore,  a  greater  amount  is  required 
in  climbing  an  incline  than  for  forward  progression  on  a  level.  In 
descending  a  gentle  incline  a  much  smaller  amount  of  nutrients  is 
required  than  in  climbing  the  same  incline,  and  as  compared  with  the 
motion  of  forward  progression  there  is  also  a  saving  in  the  amount  of 
nutrients  needed.  In  general,  it  was  found  that  the  energy  expended 
was  less  than  in  traveling  on  a  level,  provided  the  incline  was  less  than 
5°  45'.  At  this  point  it  was  equal  to  the  amount  expended  in  travel- 
ing on  a  level.  If  the  incline  was  greater,  energy  was  required  to 
keep  the  body  from  descending  too  rapidly  and  the  expenditure  was 
greater  than  on  a  level. 

SUMMARY. 

Some  of  the  principal  deductions  noted  in  this  bulletin  follow;  the 
conclusions  which  have  been  drawn  for  horses  applying  with  equal 
force  to  other  animals  of  the  same  group,  such  as  asses  and  mules. 

Horses,  like  other  animals,  require  a  definite  amount  of  nutrients 
and  energy  per  1,000  pounds  live  weight  for  maintenance,  and  an 
extra  amount,  chiefly  energy -^delding  nutrients,  for  muscular  work, 
the  amount  being  proportional  to  the  character  and  amount  of  work 
performed. 

The  amount  of  nutrients  required  increases  with  the  amount  of  work 
done  and  with  increased  speed.  More  energy  is  required  for  climb- 
ing an  incline  than  for  traveling  on  a  level.  In  descending  an  incline 
of  less  than  5°  45'  less  energy  is  required  than  in  traveling  on  a  level. 
If  the  incline  is  greater  than  5°  45',  more  energy  is  expended  (to  pre- 
vent too  rapid  descent)  than  in  walking  on  a  level. 

The  ration  should  consist  of  concentrated  and  coarse  feeds.  The  ratio 
by  weight  of  coarse  fodder  or  bulky  feed  to  concentrated  feed  in  the 
ordinary  ration  has  been  found  to  be  about  1:1.  Crude  fiber  may 
perhaps  be  fairly  considered  as  the  characteristic  constituent  of  coarse 
fodder.  The  ratio  of  crude  fiber  to  protein  in  the  average  of  a  large 
number  of  American  rations  has  been  found  to  be  about  2:1. 

1.70 


43 

Theoreticallj''  at  least  any  sufficient  and  rational  mixtuie  of  whole 
some  grains,  by-products,  roots,  and  forage  crops,  green  and  cured, 
may  be  used  to  make  up  a  ration,  though  there  is  a  very  general  prej- 
udice in  favor  of  oats  and  haj^  corn  and  hay  or  corn  fodder,  and  bar- 
ley and  hay  (frequently  that  made  from  cereal  grains),  the  first-named 
ration  being  perhaps  that  most  commonly  regarded  as  satisfactory  for 
horses.  A  corn  ration  is  very  commonly  fed  in  the  middle  West  and 
Southern  United  States — that  is,  in  the  corn-producing  belt.  The 
barley  ration  is  quite  characteristic  of  the  Pacific  coast  region.  In 
the  semiarid  regions  of  the  United  States  Kafir  corn  and  alfalfa  have 
proved  to  be  of  great  value,  owing  to  their  drought-resisting  qualities. 
Both  crops  have  been  found  useful  for  horse  feeding.  Of  the  two 
alfalfa  has  been  used  much  more  commonly,  and  has  given  very  satis- 
factory results. 

Investigations  have  shown  that  it  is  often  best  to  modify  a  ration,  for 
instance,  by  substituting  corn  wholly  or  in  part  for  oats,  so  that  while 
the  horses  remain  in  good  condtion,  the  cost  of  the  ration  is  dimin- 
ished. AVhere  large  numbers  of  horses  are  fed  this  is  often  a  matter 
of  considerable  importance. 

Generally  speaking,  horses  digest  their  feed,  and  especially  the 
nitrogen-free  extract  and  crude  fiber  in  it,  less  thoroughly  than 
ruminants. 

Horses  require  a  considerable  amount  of  water  daily,  the  quantity 
varying  with  different  seasons  of  the  year,  the  amount  of  work  per- 
formed, etc.  The  time  of  watering,  whether  before  or  after  feeding, 
is  a  matter  of  little  importance,  and,  generally  speaking,  may  be  regu- 
lated to  suit  the  convenience  of  the  feeder.  Horses  become  used  to 
either  method  of  watering,  and  irregularity  should  be  avoided,  as 
sudden  changes  are  apt  to  prove  disturbing. 

Judging  by  the  average  results,  representing  the  practice  of  a  large 
number  of  successful  American  feeders,  and  also  the  results  of  many 
tests  at  the  experiment  stations  in  different  parts  of  the  United  States, 
horses  with  light  work  consume  on  an  average  a  ration  furnishing  per 
day  0.99  pound  of  digestible  protein  and  14,890  calories  of  energy 
per  1,000  pounds  live  weight.  Similar  values  for  horses  at  moderate 
work  are  1.49  pounds  digestible  protein  and  22,710  calories.  It  is 
believed  that  for  horses  at  severe  work  larger  amounts  are  required. 
Generally  speaking,  these  average  values  are  less  than  those  called  for 
by  the  commonly  accepted  German  feeding  standards  for  horses  per- 
forming the  same  amount  of  work,  yet  from  what  is  known  regarding 
the  American  horses  it  seems  fair  to  say  that  they  were  well  fed. 

Additional  experiments  are  much  needed  which  will  result  in  a  series 
of  standards  suited  to  American  conditions. 

170 


u 


FARMERS'  BULLETINS. 

The  following  is  a  list  of  the  Fanners'  Bulletins  available  for  distribution,  showing 
the  number  and  title  of  each.  Copies  will  be  sent  to  any  address  on  applieatiou  U 
any  Senator,  Representative,  or  Delegate  in  Congress,  or  to  the  Secretary  of  Agri- 
culture, Washington,  D.  C.  The  missing  numbers  have  been  discontinued,  beinj, 
superseded  by  later  bulletins. 

No.  10.  Leguminous  Plants.  No.  21.  Barnyard  Manure.  No.  22.  The  Feeding  of  Farm  Animals 
No.  24.  Hog  Cholera  and  Swine  Plague.  No.  25.  Peanuts:  Culture  and  Uses.  No.  27.  Flax  for  Seec 
and  Fiber.  No.  28.  Weeds:  And  How  to  Kill  Them.  No.  29.  Souring  and  Other  Changes  in  Milk 
No.  30.  Grape  Diseases  on  the  Pacitic  Coast.  No.  31.  Alfalfa,  or  Lucern.  No.  32.  Silos  and  Silage 
No.  33.  Peach  Growing  for  Market.  No.  34.  Meats:  Composition  and  Cooking.  No.  35.  Potatc 
Culture.  No.  36.  Cotton  Seed  and  Its  Products.  No. .37.  Kafir  Corn:  Culture  and  Uses.  No.  38.  Spray 
ing  for  Fruit  Diseases.  No.  3J.  Onion  Culture.  No.'42.  Facts  About  Milk.  No.  43.  Sewage  Disposa 
on  the  Farm.  No. 44.  Commercial  Fertilizers.  No.  45.  Insects  Injurious  to  Stored  Grain.  No.  46 
Irrigation  in  Humid  Climates.  No.  47.  Insects  Affecting  the  Cotton  Plant.  No.  48.  The  Manuring 
of  Cotton.  No.  49.  Sheep  Feeding.  No.  50.  Sorghum  as  a  Forage  Crop.  No.  51.  Standard  Varietie: 
of  Chickens.  No.  52.  The  Sugar  Beet.  No.  53.  How  to  Grow  Mushrooms.  No.  54.  Some  Commoi 
Birds.  No.  55.  The  Dairy  Herd.  No.  .56.  Experiment  Station  Work — I.  No.  57.  Butter  Making  oi 
the  Farm.  No.  58.  The  Soy  Bean  as  a  Forage  Crop.  No.  59.  Bee  Keeping.  No.  60.  Methods  of  Curinj 
Tobacco.  No.  61.  A.sparagus  Culture.  No.  62.  Marketing  Farm  Produce.  No.  63.  Care  of  Milk  oi 
the  Farm.  No.  64.  Ducks  and  Geese.  No.  65.  Experiment  Station  Work — II.  No.  66.  Meadows  ant 
Pastures.  No.  68.  The  Black  Rot  of  the  Cabbage.  No.  69.  Experiment  Station  Work— III.  No.  70 
Insect  Enemies  of  the  Grape.  No.  71.  Essentials  in  Beef  I'roduction.  No.  72.  Cattle  Ranges  of  th< 
Southwest.  No.  73.  E.xperiment  Station  Work — IV.  No.  74.  Milk  as  Food.  No.  75.  The  Graii 
Smuts.  No.  76.  Tomato  Growing.  No.  77.  The  Liming  of  Soils.  No.  78.  Experime'nt  Station  Work- 
V.  No.  79.  ICxperiment  Station  Work— VI.  No.  SO.  The  Peach  Twig-borer.  No.  81.  Corn  Cultun 
in  the  South.  No.  82.  The  Culture  of  Tobacco.  No.  83.  Tobacco  Soils.  No.  84.  Experiment  Statiui 
Work — VII.  No.  85.  Fish  as  Food.  No.  86.  Thirty  Poisonous  Plants.  No.  87.  Experiment  Statio! 
Work — VIII.  No.  88.  Alkali  Lands.  No.  89.  Cowpeas.  No.  91.  Potato  Diseases  and  Treatment 
No.  92.  Experiment  Station  Work — IX.  No.  93.  Sugar  as  Food.  No.  94.  The  Vegetable  Garden.  No 
95.  Good  Roads  for  Farmers.  No.  96.  Raising  Sheep  for  Mutton.  No.  97.  E.xperiment  Statioi 
Work — X.  No.  98.  Suggestions  to  Southern  Farmers.  No.  99.  Insect  Enemies  of  Shade  Trees.  No 
100.  Hog  Raising  in  the  South.  No.  101.  Millets.  No.  102.  Southern  Forage  Plants.  No.  103.  Experi 
ment  Station  Work — XI.  No.  104.  Notes  on  Frost.  No.  105.  Experiment  Station  Work — XII.  No 
100.  Breeds  of  Dairy  Cattle.  No.  107.  Experiment  Station  Work — XIII.  No.  108.  Saltbushes.  No 
109.  Farmers'  Reading  Courses.  No.  110.  Rice  Culture  in  the  United  States.  No.  111.  Farmer' 
Interest  in  Good  Seed.  No.  112.  Bread  and  Bread  Making.  No.  113.  The  Apple  and  How  toGrov 
It.  No.  114.  Experiment  Station  Work — XIV.  No.  115.  Hop  Culture  in  California.  No.  116.  Irriga 
tion  in  Fruit  Growing.  No.  117.  Sheep,  Hogs,  and  Horses  in  the  Northwest.  No.  118.  Grape  Grow 
ing  in  the  South.  No.  119.  Experiment  Station  Work — XV.  No.  120.  Insects  Affecting  Tobacco 
No.  121.  Beans,  Peas,  and  Other  Legumes  as  Food.  No.  122.  Experiment  Station  Work— XVI 
No.  123.  Red  Clover  Seed.  No.  124.  Experiment  Station  Work — XVII.  No.  125.  Protection  of  Foo< 
Products  from  Injtirious  Temperatures.  No.  126.  Practical  Suggestions  for  Farm  Buildings.  No.  127 
Important  Insecticides.  No.  128.  Eggs  and  Their  Uses  as  Food.  No.  129.  Sweet  Potatoes.  No.  131 
Household  Tests  for  Detection  of  Oleomargarine  and  Renovated  Butter.  No.  132.  Insect  Enemies  o 
Growing  Wheat.  No.  133.  Experiment  Station  Work — XVIII.  No.l34.  Tree  Planting  in  Rural  Schoo 
Grounds.  No.  135.  Sorghum  Sirup  Manufacture.  No.  136.  Earth  Roads.  No.  337.  The  Angora  Goat 
No.  138.  Irrigation  in  Field  and  Garden.  No.  139.  Emmer:  A  Grain  for  the  Semiarid  Regions.  No 
140.  Pineapple  Growing.  No.  141.  Poultry  Raising  on  the  Farm.  No.  142.  The  Nutritive  and  Economic 
Value  of  P"ood.  No.  143.  The  Conformation  of  Beef  and  Dairy  Cattle.  No  144.  Experiment  Statioi 
Work— XIX.  No.  145.  Carbon  Bisulphid  as  an  Insecticide.  No.  140.  Insecticides  and  Fungicides 
No.  147.  Winter  Forage  Crops  for  the  South.  No.  148.  Celery  Culture.  No.  149.  Experiment  Statioi 
Work — XX.  No.  150.  Clearing  New  Land.  No.  151.  Dairying  in  the  South.  No.  152.  Scabies  ii 
Cattle.  No.  1.53.  Orchard  Enemies  in  the  Pacific  Northwest.  No.  154.  The  Fruit  Garden:  Prepara 
tion  and  Care.  No.  155.  How  Insects  Afl'eet  Health  in  Rural  Districts.  No.  156.  The  Home  Vineyard 
No.  157.  The  Propagation  of  Plants.  No.  158.  How  to  Build  Small  Irrigation  Ditches.  No.  159.  Seal 
in  Sheep.  No.  161.  Practical  Suggestions  for  Fruit  Growers.  No.  162.  PLxperiment  Station  Work- 
XXI.  No.  164.  Rape  as  a  Forage  Crop.  No.  165.  Culture  of  the  Silkworm.  No.  106.  Cheese  Makin; 
on  the  Farm.  No.  167.  Cassava.  No.  168.  Pearl  Millet.  No.  169.  Experiment  Station  Work— XXII 
No.  170.  Principles  of  Horse  Feeding.  No.  171.  The  Control  of  the  Codling  Moth.  No.  172.  Seal 
Insects  and  Mites  on  Citrus  Trees.  No.  173.  Primer  of  Forestry.  No.  174.  Broom  Ctirn.  No.  175 
Home  Manufacture  and  Use  of  Unfermented  Grape  Juice.  No.  176.  Cranberry  Culture.  No.  177 
Squab  Raising.  No.  178.  Insects  Injurious  in  Cranberry  Culture.  No.  179.  Horseshoeing.  No.  18t 
Game  Laws  for  1903.  No.  181.  Pruning.  No.  182.  Poultry  as  Food.  No.  183.  Meat  on  the  Farm.- 
Butchering,  curing.  No.  184.  Marketing  Live  Stock.  No.  185.  Beautifying  the  Home  Grounds.  Nc 
186.  Experiment  Station  Work— XXIII.  No.  187.  Drainage  of  Farm  Lands.  No.  188.  Weeds  Used  ii 
Medicine.  No.  189.  Information  Concerning  the  Mexican  Cotton  Boll  Weevil.  No.  190.  Experi 
ment  Station  Work— XXIV.    No.  191.  The  Cotton  BoUworm.    No.  192.  Barnyard  Manure. 


o 


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Cummings  School  of  Veterinary  Medicine  at 
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